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Photodynamic therapy – mechanisms, photosensitizers and combinations
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a modern and non-invasive form of therapy, used in the treatment of non-oncological diseases as well as cancers of various types and locations. It is based on the local or systemic application of a photosensitive compound - the photosensitizer, which is accumulated in pathological tissues. The photosensitizer molecules absorb the light of the appropriate wavelength, initiating the activation processes leading to the selective destruction of the inappropriate cells. The photocytotoxic reactions occur only within the pathological tissues, in the area of photosensitizer distribution, enabling selective destruction. Over the last decade, a significant acceleration in the development of nanotechnology has been observed. The combination of photosensitizers with nanomaterials can improve the photodynamic therapy efficiency and eliminate its side effects as well. The use of nanoparticles enables achievement a targeted method which is focused on specific receptors, and, as a result, increases the selectivity of the photodynamic therapy. The object of this review is the anticancer application of PDT, its advantages and possible modifications to potentiate its effects.
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“PDT can produce ROS that induce tumor cell death by stimulating photosensitizers with specific wavelengths of therapeutic light [101–103].”
From Nanosensitizer-assisted sonodynamic therapy for breast cancer (2025) · cites this paper as [101]
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Self-luminescent photodynamic therapy using breast cancer targeted proteins
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Photosensitizers-Loaded Nanocarriers for Enhancement of Photodynamic Therapy in Melanoma Treatment
Udrea, A.-M., Smarandache, A., Dinache, A., Mareş, C., Nistorescu, S., Avram, S., & Staicu, A. (2023) · Pharmaceutics · doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics15082124 · Cited by 68
“However, the fundamental flaw of the second-generation PSs is their non-specific localization to targeted cells/tissues and their poor solubility in water, which is a significant limiting factor in their intravenous administration and requires looking for novel drug delivery techniques [48].”
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Liposome Photosensitizer Formulations for Effective Cancer Photodynamic Therapy
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Engineering Stimuli‐Responsive Materials for Precision Medicine
Zheng, R., Chang, Y., Yao, D., Cai, M., Zhang, L., Ye, F., & Huang, X. (2024) · Small · doi:10.1002/smll.202406439 · Cited by 57
The impact of photodynamic therapy on immune system in cancer – an update
Dudzik, T., Domański, I., & Makuch, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2024.1335920 · Cited by 66
Advances on antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation mediated by Zn(II) porphyrins
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Interfacial engineering of gold nanoclusters for biomedical applications
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Applications and enhancement strategies of ROS-based non-invasive therapies in cancer treatment
Guo, Q., Tang, Y., Wang, S., & Xia, X. (2025) · Redox Biology · doi:10.1016/j.redox.2025.103515 · Cited by 61
“Importantly, the 3 PS* can transfer energy to oxygen molecules to generate ROS through two reaction processes (Type I and Type II) [111,112].”
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Oxygen-Generating Hydrogels Overcome Tumor Hypoxia to Enhance Photodynamic/Gas Synergistic Therapy
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Recent Progress and Prospect of Metal–Organic Framework-Based Nanozymes in Biomedical Application
Baranwal, A., Polash, S. A., Aralappanavar, V. K., Behera, B. K., Bansal, V., & Shukla, R. (2024) · Nanomaterials · doi:10.3390/nano14030244 · Cited by 72
“Photodynamic therapy (PDT) involves combining molecular oxygen with a light-sensitive molecule called a photosensitizer (PS), resulting in an interaction between the PS and light [221].”
BackgroundTargeting Nrf2 may reverse the drug resistance in ovarian cancer
Li, D., Hong, X., Zhao, F., Ci, X., & Zhang, S. (2021) · Cancer Cell International · doi:10.1186/s12935-021-01822-1 · Cited by 63
Cyanine dyes in the mitochondria-targeting photodynamic and photothermal therapy
Kejík, Z., Hajduch, J., Abramenko, N., Vellieux, F. M. D., Veselá, K., Fialová, J. L., Petrláková, K., Kučnirová, K., Kaplánek, R., Tatar, A., et al. (2024) · Communications Chemistry · doi:10.1038/s42004-024-01256-6 · Cited by 69
“This mechanism is expected for the majority of PS 57 .”
BackgroundROS regulation in gliomas: implications for treatment strategies
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TFOS Lifestyle: Impact of cosmetics on the ocular surface
Sullivan, D. A., da Costa, A. X., DUCA, E. D., Doll, T., Grupcheva, C. N., Lazreg, S., Liu, S., McGee, S. R., Murthy, R., Narang, P., et al. (2023) · The Ocular Surface · doi:10.1016/j.jtos.2023.04.005 · Cited by 72
Chu, X., Zhang, L., Li, Y., He, Y. H., Zhang, Y. X., & Du, C. (2022) · Small · doi:10.1002/smll.202205414 · Cited by 60
Hu, D., Pan, M., Yu, Y., Sun, A., Shi, K., Qu, Y., & Qian, Z. (2020) · Open Research (University of Surrey) · doi:10.1002/viw2.6 · Cited by 72
Bacterial resistance to antimicrobial photodynamic therapy: A critical update
Surur, A. K., de Oliveira, A. B., de Annunzio, S. R., Ferrisse, T. M., & Fontana, C. R. (2024) · Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2024.112905 · Cited by 62
Wang, Y., Zhang, Y., Duan, X., Mao, J., Pan, M. L., Shen, J., & Su, C. (2023) · Coordination Chemistry Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2023.215570 · Cited by 68
Current advances in metal–organic frameworks for cancer nanodynamic therapies
Liu, Z., Yan, Z., Di, Y., Yang, S., Ning, Y., Mao, Y., Gao, Y., Zhao, Q., & Wang, S. (2023) · Coordination Chemistry Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2023.215434 · Cited by 61
Nisar, S. S., Irfan, F., Hammad, H., Abdulla, A., Kamran, M., Barakat, A., Niazi, F., Baig, E. A., & Qureshi, A. (2022) · Photodiagnosis and Photodynamic Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.pdpdt.2022.103044 · Cited by 54
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Fiber Optic Devices for Diagnostics and Therapy in Photomedicine
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Spotlight on porphyrins: Classifications, mechanisms and medical applications
Yang, F., Xu, M., Chen, X., & Luo, Y. (2023) · Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114933 · Cited by 77
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Recent Emergence of Rhenium(I) Tricarbonyl Complexes as Photosensitisers for Cancer Therapy
Liew, H. S., Mai, C., Zulkefeli, M., Madheswaran, T., Kiew, L. V., Delsuc, N., & Low, M. L. (2020) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules25184176 · Cited by 75
“Considering the numerous stringent requirements that need to be met in pharmaceutical production and clinical use, an ideal photosensitiser should possess the following characteristics (i) able to generate singlet oxygen even in a hypoxia state and high quantum yield of 1O2, (ii) chemically pure and stable at room tem…”
He, G., Mu, T., Yuan, Y.-L., Yang, W., Zhang, Y., Chen, Q.-Y., Bian, M., Pan, Y.-S., Xiang, Q., Chen, Z.-H., et al. (2019) · Journal of Cancer · doi:10.7150/jca.30690 · Cited by 53
“It has been proven in treatment of some malignant tumor, such as nasopharyngeal carcinoma and basal cell carcinoma[5].”
BackgroundZhou, Q., Huang, G., Si, J., Wu, Y., Jin, S., Ji, Y., & Ge, Z. (2024) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/acsnano.4c14555 · Cited by 59
Breast Cancer Bone Metastasis: A Narrative Review of Emerging Targeted Drug Delivery Systems
Shao, H., & Varamini, P. (2022) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells11030388 · Cited by 59
“With a combination of different factors, including a photosensitiser, an appropriate wavelength, and molecular oxygen, PDT could generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to cell necrosis or apoptosis [112,113].”
BackgroundLenna, S., Bellotti, C., Duchi, S., Martella, E., Columbaro, M., Dozza, B., Ballestri, M., Guerrini, A., Sotgiu, G., Frisoni, T., et al. (2020) · Journal of Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research · doi:10.1186/s13046-020-01548-4 · Cited by 57
Ailioaie, L. M., Ailioaie, C., & Litscher, G. (2021) · Pharmaceutics · doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics13101562 · Cited by 65
“Herman von Tappeiner defined “photodynamic action” [4] and gave it the name known today as photodynamic therapy, a contemporary and non-invasive form of anticancer therap , well studied in pres nt also for infecti ns, no -o cological disorders, and in some countries, as a standardized protocol, alo g with radi therapy…”
BackgroundInfluentialZhou, R., Gong, J., Deng, X., Shen, L., Wu, S., Fan, H., & Liu, L. (2024) · Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2024.117404 · Cited by 51
Application of aptamer-drug delivery system in the therapy of breast cancer
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BODIPYs in PDT: A Journey through the Most Interesting Molecules Produced in the Last 10 Years
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“In this category PSs are conjugated with organic and inorganic polymers, nanoparticles, liposomes, monoclonal antibodies, antibody fragments, protein/peptides (such as transferrin, EGF, somatostatin and insulin), carbohydrates, folic acid, and many others [1,24,55,56].”
BackgroundFatima, H., Jin, Z. Y., Shao, Z., & Chen, X. J. (2022) · Journal of Colloid and Interface Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2022.04.087 · Cited by 60
Combinatorial Therapeutic Approaches with Nanomaterial-Based Photodynamic Cancer Therapy
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“Furthermore, second-generation PSs had a longer light activation wavelength and shorter half-life [26].”
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New horizons for the therapeutic application of nanozymes in cancer treatment
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“PDT/PTT combinational strategy represents a non-invasive approach that synergistically enhances the efficacy of cancer therapies by integrating PDT and PTT [155, 156].”
Current advances in nanozyme-based nanodynamic therapies for cancer
Zhou, X., Feng, S., Xu, Q., Li, Y., Lan, J., Wang, Z., Ding, Y., Wang, S., & Zhao, Q. (2024) · Acta Biomaterialia · doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2024.11.023 · Cited by 58
Braný, D., Dvorská, D., Strnádel, J., Matáková, T., Halášová, E., & Škovierová, H. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms222212252 · Cited by 56
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“It should also have a clearly defined chemical composition and be removed from the body as soon as possible after therapy [131].”
BackgroundResearch progress of organic photothermal agents delivery and synergistic therapy systems.
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“Relative to traditional therapies, PDT has several advantages including non-invasive therapy, non-cytotoxic molecules without light activation, and site-specific light treatment which decreases the side effects, thus accelerating the healing process [8,9].”
BackgroundPhotosensitizers in photodynamic therapy: An advancement in cancer treatment
Oluwajembola, A. M., Cleanclay, W. D., Onyia, A. F., Chikere, B., Zakari, S., Ndifreke, E., & Campos, O. C. D. (2024) · Results in Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.rechem.2024.101715 · Cited by 65
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Phototriggered Aggregation‐Induced Emission and Direct Generation of 4D Soft Patterns
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“Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a form of chemotherapy in which photosensitive compounds are stimulated by light to kill cells of interest, and this therapy can be used to treat a number of diseases [97].”
BackgroundPhotodynamic diagnosis and photodynamic therapy of colorectal cancer in vitro and in vivo
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Smart nanomaterials for multimodal theranostics and tissue regeneration
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Photodynamic Therapy in Oral Cancer: A Narrative Review
Mosaddad, S. A., Mahootchi, P., Rastegar, Z., Abbasi, B., Alam, M., Abbasi, K., Fani‐Hanifeh, S., Amookhteh, S., Sadeghi, S., Soufdoost, R., et al. (2023) · Photobiomodulation, photomedicine, and laser surgery · doi:10.1089/photob.2023.0030 · Cited by 46
Recent Advances in Targeted Nanocarriers for the Management of Triple Negative Breast Cancer
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Multifaceted nanozymes for synergistic antitumor therapy: A review
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“Noninvasive treatments such as photodynamic therapy are currently applied in clinical settings and have achieved therapeutic effects; however, due to the limited tissue penetration of light, deep-seated tumors cannot be eliminated completely (Abrahamse & Hamblin, 2016; Kwiatkowski et al., 2018).”
BackgroundXu, C., Wang, M., Guo, W., Sun, W. Y., & Liu, Y. (2021) · Frontiers in Oncology · doi:10.3389/fonc.2021.672490 · Cited by 51
“To date, it has been applied in many fields including dermatology, oncology, gynecology, and urology (114).”
Recent Advances in pH- or/and Photo-Responsive Nanovehicles
Shin, Y., Husni, P., Kang, K., Lee, D., Lee, S., Lee, E. S., Youn, Y. S., & Oh, K. (2021) · Pharmaceutics · doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics13050725 · Cited by 53
Metadata
- Authors
- Kwiatkowski, S., Knap, B., Przystupski, D., Saczko, J., Kędzierska, E., Knap-Czop, K., Kotlińska, J., Michel, O., Kotowski, K., & Kulbacka, J.
- Affiliations
- Wroclaw Medical University (PL)
- Medical University of Lublin (PL)
- Corresponding author
- Kulbacka, Julita
- ORCID
- Venue
- Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2018-10
- Volume
- 106
- Pages
- 1098-1107
- ISSN
- 0753-3322 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2884145325
- Cited by
- 2,173
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 192 · 2025: 360 · 2024: 404 · 2023: 362 · 2022: 340 · 2021: 272 · 2020: 174 · 2019: 61 · 2018: 7
- FWCI
- 22.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Uniwersytet Medyczny im. Piastów Slaskich we Wroclawiu
- Uniwersytet Medyczny w Lublinie
- Servier
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cancer Research › Photodynamic Therapy Research Studies
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Nanoplatforms for cancer theranostics
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Porphyrin and Phthalocyanine Chemistry
- Keywords
- photodynamic therapy, photosensitizers, photocytotoxicity, targeted drug delivery, nanoparticles, nanomaterials, combination therapy
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Drug Carriers, Humans, Neoplasms, Photochemotherapy, Drug Delivery Systems, Photosensitizing Agents, Nanomedicine, Electrochemotherapy, Nanoparticles
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