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Photodynamic therapy – mechanisms, photosensitizers and combinations
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a modern and non-invasive form of therapy, used in the treatment of non-oncological diseases as well as cancers of various types and locations. It is based on the local or systemic application of a photosensitive compound - the photosensitizer, which is accumulated in pathological tissues. The photosensitizer molecules absorb the light of the appropriate wavelength, initiating the activation processes leading to the selective destruction of the inappropriate cells. The photocytotoxic reactions occur only within the pathological tissues, in the area of photosensitizer distribution, enabling selective destruction. Over the last decade, a significant acceleration in the development of nanotechnology has been observed. The combination of photosensitizers with nanomaterials can improve the photodynamic therapy efficiency and eliminate its side effects as well. The use of nanoparticles enables achievement a targeted method which is focused on specific receptors, and, as a result, increases the selectivity of the photodynamic therapy. The object of this review is the anticancer application of PDT, its advantages and possible modifications to potentiate its effects.
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“PDT can produce ROS that induce tumor cell death by stimulating photosensitizers with specific wavelengths of therapeutic light [101–103].”
From Nanosensitizer-assisted sonodynamic therapy for breast cancer (2025) · cites this paper as [101]
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“The first- and secondgeneration photosensitizers are also classified among the porphyrin family (HpD, benzoporphyrin derivative, ALA [5-aminolevulinic acid]), chlorin family (temoporfin, purlytin [tin-ethyl-etiopurpurin], NPe6 [mono-L-aspartyl chlorin e6] = talaporfin sodium, HPPH (photochlor), and dyes (phthalocyanin…”
BackgroundLi, Y., Zheng, L., Cao, W., Yang, X., Wang, Q., Gu, X., Liu, F., Ma, T., Wang, X., & Wang, X. (2023) · Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114684 · Cited by 22
Lyons, N., Giri, R., Begun, J., Clark, D. A., Proud, D. M., He, Y., Hooper, J. D., & Kryza, T. (2023) · Antioxidants and Redox Signaling · doi:10.1089/ars.2022.0127 · Cited by 21
“…PS) to synthetic compounds (second-generation PS), and most recently the use of vectors and targeting agents in the form of nanoparticles (NPs), peptides, or antibodies (third-generation PS) to improve accumulation in cancer cells and effective ROS generation (Kwiatkowski et al., 2018).”
Pan, Z., Liang, B.-F., Zhi, Y.-S., Yao, D., Li, C., Wu, H., & He, L. (2023) · Dalton Transactions · doi:10.1039/d2dt03861g · Cited by 42
Tian, N., Duan, H., Cao, T., Dai, G., Sheng, G., Chu, H.-Q., & Sun, Z.-G. (2023) · RSC Advances · doi:10.1039/d2ra06334d · Cited by 19
Tong, L., Zhang, S., Huang, R., Yi, H., & Wang, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology · doi:10.3389/fbioe.2022.1032318 · Cited by 22
“Since nanoparticles are able to protect PSs from aggregation in aqueous environment and deliver PSs to the diseases site, they have been extensively explored for PS delivery in PDT (Kwiatkowski et al., 2018; Alsaab et al., 2020; Hou et al., 2020).”
BackgroundUltrasound Triggers Hypericin Activation Leading to Multifaceted Anticancer Activity
Foglietta, F., Canaparo, R., Cossari, S., Panzanelli, P., Dosio, F., & Serpe, L. (2022) · Pharmaceutics · doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics14051102 · Cited by 25
“Consequently, ROS-mediated PDT leads to tumor killing via apoptotic-, necrotic-, and autophagy-associated cell death [10,12].”
BackgroundYao, Y.-L., Wang, Y.-F., Li, C.-X., Wu, L., & Tang, G.-Y. (2022) · Lasers in Surgery and Medicine · doi:10.1002/lsm.23534 · Cited by 19
“Based on the possibility of selective destruction of pathological tissues with accumulated photosensitizers, PDT has been successfully used in oncology.(25) The malignant transformation rate of this study was 8.”
MethodEchevarría, I., Zafon, E., Barrabés, S., Martínez, M. Á., Ramos-Gómez, S., Ortega, N., Manzano, B. R., Jalón, F. A., Quesada, R., Espino, G., et al. (2022) · Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2022.111790 · Cited by 26
Wang, X., Maswikiti, E. P., Zhu, J., Ma, Y.-L., Zheng, P., Yu, Y., Wang, B.-F., Gao, L., & Chen, H. (2021) · Photodiagnosis and Photodynamic Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.pdpdt.2021.102671 · Cited by 19
Meng, X., Lei, Y., Zhang, X., Sun, K., Zhang, L., & Wang, Z. (2021) · Applied Materials Today · doi:10.1016/j.apmt.2021.101149 · Cited by 23
Monaco, H., Yokomizo, S., Choi, H. S., & Kashiwagi, S. (2021) · Open Research (University of Surrey) · doi:10.1002/viw.20200110 · Cited by 51
Synergistic photodynamic and photothermal therapy of BODIPY-conjugated hyaluronic acid nanoparticles
Chen, B., Cao, J., Zhang, K., Zhang, Y.-N., Lü, J., Iqbal, M. Z., Zhang, Q., & Kong, X. (2021) · Journal of Biomaterials Science Polymer Edition · doi:10.1080/09205063.2021.1954138 · Cited by 23
Photodynamic Therapy in Orthodontics: A Literature Review
Olek, M., Machorowska-Pieniążek, A., Stós, W., Kalukin, J., Bartusik-Aebisher, D., Aebisher, D., Cieślar, G., & Kawczyk-Krupka, A. (2021) · Pharmaceutics · doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics13050720 · Cited by 19
“Healthy tissues may remain intact if the PS, wavelength, light energy, and drug-light interval are correctly selected [22,23].”
BackgroundPromise of gold nanomaterials as a lung cancer theranostic agent: a systematic review
Niloy, M. S., Shakil, M. S., Hossen, M. S., Alam, M., & Rosengren, R. (2021) · International Nano Letters · doi:10.1007/s40089-021-00332-2 · Cited by 19
“, AuNPs) and enhances the photochemical reaction to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), which in turn induces cancer cell death [62, 63].”
BackgroundKhorsandi, K., Hosseinzadeh, R., & Chamani, E. (2020) · Cancer Cell International · doi:10.1186/s12935-020-01616-x · Cited by 19
Sn(IV) N-confused porphyrins as photosensitizer dyes for photodynamic therapy in the near IR region.
Babu, B., Mack, J., & Nyokong, T. (2020) · Dalton Transactions · doi:10.1039/d0dt03296d · Cited by 19
Perspectives of photodynamic therapy in biotechnology.
Couto, G. K., Seixas, F., Iglesias, B., & Collares, T. (2020) · Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology. B: Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2020.112051 · Cited by 19
Kamran, M. (2020) · Photodiagnosis and Photodynamic Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.pdpdt.2019.101585 · Cited by 19
Design of Metal-Organic Frameworks for pH-Responsive Drug Delivery Application.
Shen, X., Pan, Y., Sun, Z.-H., Liu, D., Xu, H., Yu, Q., Trivedi, M., Kumar, A., Chen, J.-X., & Liu, J. (2019) · Mini-Reviews in Medical Chemistry · doi:10.2174/1389557519666190722164247 · Cited by 19
The eye as a novel imaging site in diabetes research
Yang, S.-N., & Berggren, P. (2019) · Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.01.005 · Cited by 23
Cao, S., Liu, Y., Tai, X.-S., Shen, L.-G., Yang, H., Li, F., Sui, B.-L., Ma, P., Zhu, L., Gao, B., et al. (2025) · RSC Advances · doi:10.1039/d5ra05267j · Cited by 18
Yang, L., Xiong, L., & He, X. (2025) · Chemical & Biomedical Imaging · doi:10.1021/cbmi.5c00016 · Cited by 20
Martins, M., Veiga, F., Paiva‐Santos, A. C., & Pires, P. C. (2025) · ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science · doi:10.1021/acsptsci.4c00679 · Cited by 23
Cell death: The underlying mechanisms of photodynamic therapy for skin diseases
Li, H. Y., Shen, J., Zheng, C., Zhu, P., Yang, H., Huang, Y., Mao, X., Yang, Z., Hu, G., & Chen, Y. (2025) · Interdisciplinary medicine · doi:10.1002/inmd.20240057 · Cited by 18
Recent advances of photodiagnosis and treatment for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma
Zhang, Y., Li, Z., Zhang, C., Shao, C., Duan, Y., Zheng, G., Cai, Y., Ge, M., & Xu, J. (2024) · Neoplasia · doi:10.1016/j.neo.2024.101118 · Cited by 19
“These two mechanisms generally coexist in the cell, but the respective occupancy is determined by the oxygen concentration, the structure of the photosensitizer, the pH value, and other mechanisms [151].”
Overcoming Barriers in Photodynamic Therapy Harnessing Nanogenerators Strategies
Zhou, Y., Zou, P., Chen, X., Chen, P., Shi, M., Lang, J., & Chen, M. (2024) · International Journal on Biological Sciences · doi:10.7150/ijbs.100317 · Cited by 18
“The outcomes of PDT are influenced by various factors, including tumor cell type and PS characteristics such as photophysical and photochemical properties [49], tissue distribution [50], absorption properties [49, 51], and subcellular localization [49, 51, 52].”
BackgroundLiu, X.-Y., Wang, H., Li, Z., Li, J.-M., He, S.-Q., Hu, C., Song, Y.-J., Gao, H.-L., & Qin, Y. (2024) · Journal of Nanobiotechnology · doi:10.1186/s12951-024-02839-0 · Cited by 18
“Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an emerging minimally invasive treatment in which large amounts of cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced by laser irradiation via photosensitizers, resulting in selective cytotoxicity and immunogenic cell death (ICD) to malignant cells [7].”
BackgroundLi, J., Li, J., He, J., He, X., Chen, D., Dong, Z., Xiong, L., Bai, W., Li, M., Guo, R., et al. (2024) · Nano Research · doi:10.1007/s12274-024-6917-6 · Cited by 22
Progress and promise of photoresponsive nanocarriers for precision drug delivery in cancer
Thakur, N. S., Saleh, N., Khan, A. F., Chakrabarty, B., & Agrahari, V. (2024) · Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology C Photochemistry Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2024.100665 · Cited by 22
Nanocarriers in topical photodynamic therapy
Dragicevic-Curic, N., Predic-Atkinson, J., Nikolić, B., Pajović, S. B., Ivković, S., & Adžić, M. (2024) · Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery · doi:10.1080/17425247.2024.2318460 · Cited by 25
Liu, F., Li, Y. H., Wei, Q., & Liu, J. (2024) · Journal of Colloid and Interface Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2024.02.173 · Cited by 22
Research on photoelectrochemical sensing applications of hydrogen- bonded organic frameworks
Mao, C., Dai, R., & Zhao, L. (2024) · Journal of Molecular Structure · doi:10.1016/j.molstruc.2024.137625 · Cited by 18
Chen, D.-Y., Wang, B., Zhao, Z.-J., Zhang, G.-L., Wang, P.-R., Zhang, L.-L., Liu, X.-J., Zhang, H.-Y., Zeng, Q.-Y., & Wang, X.-L. (2023) · Biochimica et biophysica acta. Molecular cell research · doi:10.1016/j.bbamcr.2023.119603 · Cited by 18
Nanomedicine-based adjuvant therapy: a promising solution for lung cancer
Xu, Y., Hsu, J. C., Xu, L., Chen, W., Cai, W., & Wang, K. (2023) · Journal of Nanobiotechnology · doi:10.1186/s12951-023-01958-4 · Cited by 21
“Upon near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation, PTT achieves localized heating to ablate tumor tissues [72], while PDT generates free radicals and ROS to induce cellular damages [73].”
BackgroundPrinz, J., Wink, M., Neuhaus, S., Grob, M. C., Walt, H., Bosshard, P. P., & Achermann, Y. (2023) · Antibiotics · doi:10.3390/antibiotics12010118 · Cited by 17
“In the presence of oxygen, the excited photosensitizer transfers electrons to organic substrates, producing reactive oxygen species (type I reactions) or transfers energy to molecular oxygen, leading to singlet oxygen production (type II reactions), both of which cause oxidative stress on bacterial cells [12,13].”
BackgroundChen, M., Dong, C., & Shi, S. (2022) · ACS Materials Letters · doi:10.1021/acsmaterialslett.2c00689 · Cited by 20
Insight into the Prospects for Tumor Therapy Based on Photodynamic Immunotherapy
Cheng, X., Wei, Y., Jiang, X., Wang, C., Liu, M., Yan, J., Zhang, L., & Zhou, Y. (2022) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph15111359 · Cited by 20
“As previously mentioned, apoptosis is caused by mitochondria, cell membrane destruction leads to necrosis, and autophagy is caused by lysosome/ER damage [44].”
BackgroundCarbon‐Based Nanomaterials for Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis: A Review
Thomas, D. T., Baby, A., Raman, V., & Balakrishnan, S. P. (2022) · ChemistrySelect · doi:10.1002/slct.202202455 · Cited by 26
Youf, R., Nasir, A., Müller, M., Thétiot, F., Haute, T., Ghanem, R., Jonas, U., Schönherr, H., Lemercier, G., Montier, T., et al. (2022) · Pharmaceutics · doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics14081664 · Cited by 26
Tang, Y.-J., Su, Y.-H., Xu, Y.-J., Zhang, Y., Shen, Y., Qin, L., Zhang, L., Cao, L.-L., Zhou, Y., Zhang, T., et al. (2022) · Photodiagnosis and Photodynamic Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.pdpdt.2022.102884 · Cited by 18
Current Photoactive Molecules for Targeted Therapy of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer
Dias, C. J., Helguero, L. A., & Faustino, M. A. F. (2021) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules26247654 · Cited by 20
“Namely, the following: stability; selectivity towards neoplasic tissues and rapid clearance from healthy tissues; amphiphilicity; minimal cytotoxicity in the dark; high singlet oxygen quantum yield; high absorption on the therapeutic window (600–800 nm—where the light can penetrate efficiently in the tissues); easy av…”
BackgroundInfluentialNistorescu, S., Udrea, A.-M., Badea, M. A., Lungu, I. I., Boni, M., Tozar, T., Dumitrache, F. V., Maraloiu, V., Popescu, R. G., Fleaca, C. T., et al. (2021) · Pharmaceutics · doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics13122130 · Cited by 24
Dorst, D. N., van Caam, A., Vitters, E. L., Walgreen, B., Helsen, M. M. A., Klein, C., Gudi, S., Wubs, T., Kumari, J., Vonk, M. C., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms222312681 · Cited by 22
“conversion reaction, in which molecular oxygen accepts the energy from the PS, which is dependent on oxygen tension [23].”
BackgroundHitchhiking Nanoparticles: Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Mediated Delivery of Theranostic Nanoparticles
Dapkutė, D., Plečkaitis, M., Bulotienė, D., Daunoravičius, D., Rotomskis, R., & Karabanovas, V. (2021) · ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces · doi:10.1021/acsami.1c10445 · Cited by 24
Alshehri, A. (2021) · Photodiagnosis and Photodynamic Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.pdpdt.2021.102488 · Cited by 18
Portugal, I., Jain, S. A., Severino, P. B., & Priefer, R. (2021) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph14080772 · Cited by 19
“There is a high level of tumor selectivity to PS due to increased tumor vasculature surface area, higher membrane ermeability of cancer cells, and decreased lymphatic drainage [16].”
BackgroundZhang, Q., Wu, L., Liu, S., Chen, Q., Zeng, L., Chen, X., & Zhang, Q. (2021) · Nanotechnology · doi:10.1088/1361-6528/ac07d1 · Cited by 19
“Habitual photosensitizers can be divided into three categories including the porphyrin family, chlorin family and dyes family [ 8 ] .”
Ahmed, E. S. A., Elgendy, A., Hamblin, M. R., & Mohamed, T. (2021) · Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology. B: Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2021.112240 · Cited by 18
Szlasa, W., Szewczyk, A., Drąg-Zalesińska, M., Czapor-Irzabek, H., Michel, O., Kiełbik, A., Cierluk, K., Zalesińska, A., Novickij, V., Tarek, M., et al. (2021) · Bioelectrochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.bioelechem.2021.107806 · Cited by 18
“The molecular analysis of the therapy among all analyzed cell lines proves that there has to be a mechanism in which the cell absorbs the curcumin degradation products from the extracellular space – by pinocytosis, endocytosis or by the pores formed by oxidized lipids, formed during PDT [46,47].”
BackgroundSelf-citationPhotodynamic sensitizers modulate cytoskeleton structural dynamics in neuronal cells
Dubey, T., & Chinnathambi, S. (2021) · Cytoskeleton · doi:10.1002/cm.21655 · Cited by 36
“such as phenothiazine, xanthene, benzophenothiazinium salt, and so forth (Kwiatkowski et al., 2018).”
BackgroundSari, C., Nalcaoğlu, A., Değirmencioğlu, I., & EyÜpoĞlu, F. C. (2021) · Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology. B: Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2021.112143 · Cited by 18
Alshahrani, A., Alhaizaey, A., Kamran, M., & Alshahrani, I. (2020) · Photodiagnosis and Photodynamic Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.pdpdt.2020.102019 · Cited by 18
Lee, S., & Lee, K. (2020) · Pharmaceutics · doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics12060537 · Cited by 18
Özel, A., Demirbaş, Ü., Barut, B., & Kantekin, H. (2019) · Journal of Molecular Structure · doi:10.1016/j.molstruc.2019.03.047 · Cited by 18
Recent developments in nanomedicine-integrated photodynamic therapy for cancer
Yasothamani, V., Yu, B., & Cong, H. (2025) · Coordination Chemistry Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2025.217170 · Cited by 21
Recent advances in gold nanoparticle-based targeted photodynamic and photothermal cancer therapy
Obalola, A., Abrahamse, H., & Kumar, S. S. D. (2025) · Nanoscale Advances · doi:10.1039/d5na00767d · Cited by 17
“Lamps, lasers, and light-emitting diodes are the three main light sources used by PDT.”
Recent advances in developing bioorthogonally activatable photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy
Ning, S., Yao, Y., Feng, X., & Tian, Y. (2025) · European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.ejmech.2025.117672 · Cited by 18
Nobari, S. A., Doustvandi, M. A., Yaghoubi, S. M., Oskouei, S. S. S., Alizadeh, E., Nour, M. A., Khiabani, N. A., Baradaran, B., & Rahmati, M. (2024) · Journal of Pharmaceutical Investigation · doi:10.1007/s40005-024-00698-3 · Cited by 18
“To reduce side effects, it should be quickly removed from healthy tissues (Agostinis et al. 2011; Kwiatkowski et al. 2018; Zheng et al. 2020).”
Application of nanostructure-loaded hydrogels for cancer treatment and tissue regeneration
Ren, Y., Chen, C., Zhang, M., Ding, X., Zhang, L., Jiang, X., Li, M., Gao, J., & Wu, J. F. (2024) · Applied Materials Today · doi:10.1016/j.apmt.2024.102086 · Cited by 16
Wu, C.-Q., Chen, W., Yan, S., Zhong, J., Du, L., Yang, C., Pu, Y., Li, Y., Lin, J.-F., Zeng, M., et al. (2024) · Regenerative Biomaterials · doi:10.1093/rb/rbae019 · Cited by 17
“As non-invasive and effective cancer treatment modalities, PTT and PDT have gained a great deal of attention from the medical community [1], which destroy tumor cells by absorbing light energy and converting it into thermal energy or generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) [2, 3].”
BackgroundEnzyme-responsive design combined with photodynamic therapy for cancer treatment
Zhi, S., Huang, M., & Cheng, K. (2024) · Drug Discovery Today · doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2024.103965 · Cited by 23
Metadata
- Authors
- Kwiatkowski, S., Knap, B., Przystupski, D., Saczko, J., Kędzierska, E., Knap-Czop, K., Kotlińska, J., Michel, O., Kotowski, K., & Kulbacka, J.
- Affiliations
- Wroclaw Medical University (PL)
- Medical University of Lublin (PL)
- Corresponding author
- Kulbacka, Julita
- ORCID
- Venue
- Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2018-10
- Volume
- 106
- Pages
- 1098-1107
- ISSN
- 0753-3322 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2884145325
- Cited by
- 2,173
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 192 · 2025: 360 · 2024: 404 · 2023: 362 · 2022: 340 · 2021: 272 · 2020: 174 · 2019: 61 · 2018: 7
- FWCI
- 22.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Uniwersytet Medyczny im. Piastów Slaskich we Wroclawiu
- Uniwersytet Medyczny w Lublinie
- Servier
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cancer Research › Photodynamic Therapy Research Studies
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Nanoplatforms for cancer theranostics
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Porphyrin and Phthalocyanine Chemistry
- Keywords
- photodynamic therapy, photosensitizers, photocytotoxicity, targeted drug delivery, nanoparticles, nanomaterials, combination therapy
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Drug Carriers, Humans, Neoplasms, Photochemotherapy, Drug Delivery Systems, Photosensitizing Agents, Nanomedicine, Electrochemotherapy, Nanoparticles
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