A new dimension of sensory dysfunction: stereopsis deficits in schizophrenia

Schechter, Isaac; Butler, Pamela D.; Jalbrzikowski, Maria; Pasternak, Roey; Saperstein, Alice M.; Javitt, Daniel C.

doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.064

Cited by 53Schizophrenia research and treatmentVisual perception and processing mechanismsHallucinations in medical conditions

A new dimension of sensory dysfunction: stereopsis deficits in schizophrenia

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Schechter, Isaac, Butler, Pamela D., Jalbrzikowski, Maria, Pasternak, Roey, Saperstein, Alice M., Javitt, Daniel C.·2006·Biological Psychiatry

DOI 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.064PMC PMC2901805

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Abstract

Background Schizophrenia is a neurocognitive disorder with a wide range of cognitive and sensory impairments. Early visual processing has been shown to be especially impaired. This article investigates the integrity of binocular depth perception (stereopsis) in schizophrenia.Methods Seventeen schizophrenia patients and 19 healthy control subjects were compared on the Graded Circles Stereo Test. Results of stereoacuity were compared between patients and control subjects using t test.Results Schizophrenia patients demonstrated significantly (p = .006) reduced stereoacuity (mean = 142 arcseconds) versus control subjects (mean = 55 arcseconds). At the normative level for adults, patients performed below chance.Conclusions These findings demonstrate an impairment of binocular depth perception and further confirm deficits of early visual processing in schizophrenia. Findings are discussed in context of magnocellular/dorsal stream processing with implications for visual processing and cognitive deficits.

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In schizophrenia, visual integration abilities are disrupted, as shown by impaired coordinated visual skills necessary for illusory effects, such as stereopsis.
“In VIs, the disruption in visual integration abilities becomes strikingly apparent when schizophrenia patients exhibit impaired coordinated visual skills necessary for the illusory effects to occur, such as stereopsis (Schechter et al., 2006).”
From What visual illusions teach us about schizophrenia (2014) · cites this paper as Schechter et al., 2006

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N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor dysfunction or dysregulation: The final common pathway on the road to schizophrenia?
Kantrowitz, J. T., & Javitt, D. C. (2010) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2010.04.006 · Cited by 397 · see citing works
Self-citation
Multimodal Neuroimaging in Schizophrenia: Description and Dissemination
Aine, C. J., Bockholt, H. J., Bustillo, J., Cañive, J. M., Caprihan, A., Gasparovic, C., Hanlon, F. M., Houck, J. M., Jung, R. E., Lauriello, J., et al. (2017) · Neuroinformatics · doi:10.1007/s12021-017-9338-9 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Schizophrenia and the eye
Silverstein, S. M., & Rosen, R. B. (2015) · Schizophrenia Research Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.scog.2015.03.004 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
What visual illusions teach us about schizophrenia
Notredame, C.-E., Pins, D., Deneve, S., & Jardri, R. (2014) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2014.00063 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Contrast sensitivity and magnocellular functioning in schizophrenia
SKOTTUN, B. C., & Skoyles, J. R. (2007) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2007.07.016 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Seeing the World Dimly: The Impact of Early Visual Deficits on Visual Experience in Schizophrenia
Kantrowitz, J. T., Butler, P. D., Schecter, I., Silipo, G. S., & Javitt, D. C. (2009) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbp100 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Self-citation
Psychotic Experiences in Schizophrenia and Sensitivity to Sensory Evidence
Weilnhammer, V., Röd, L., Eckert, A.-L., Stuke, H., Heinz, A., & Sterzer, P. (2020) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbaa003 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Cortical Microcircuit Mechanisms of Mismatch Negativity and Its Underlying Subcomponents
Ross, J. M., & Hamm, J. P. (2020) · Frontiers in Neural Circuits · doi:10.3389/fncir.2020.00013 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Reduced visual surround suppression in schizophrenia shown by measuring contrast detection thresholds
Serrano‐Pedraza, I., Romero‐Ferreiro, V., Read, J. C. A., Diéguez-Risco, T., Bagney, A., Caballero-González, M., Rodríguez-Torresano, J., & Rodríguez–Jiménez, R. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01431 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Docosahexaenoic Acid and Visual Functioning in Preterm Infants: A Review
Molloy, C. S., Doyle, L. W., Makrides, M., & Anderson, P. J. (2012) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-012-9216-z · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Space and Objects: On the Phenomenology and Cognitive Neuroscience of Anomalous Perception in Schizophrenia (Ancillary Article to EAWE Domain 1)
Silverstein, S. M., Demmin, D. L., & Škodlar, B. (2017) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000452493 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Effects of age and optical blur on real depth stereoacuity
Costa, M. F., Moreira, S. M. C. F., Hamer, R. D., & Ventura, D. F. (2010) · Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics · doi:10.1111/j.1475-1313.2010.00750.x · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Long-term effect of high-dose supplementation with DHA on visual function at school age in children born at <33 wk gestational age: results from a follow-up of a randomized controlled trial
Molloy, C. S., Stokes, S., Makrides, M., Collins, C. T., Anderson, P. J., & Doyle, L. W. (2015) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.115.114710 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Reduced P300 and P600 amplitude in the hollow-mask illusion in patients with schizophrenia
Dima, D., Dillo, W., Bonnemann, C., Emrich, H. M., & Dietrich, D. E. (2011) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.09.015 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
The Miiller-Lyer Illusion as a Tool for Schizophrenia Screening
Pessoa, V. F., Monge-Fuentes, V., Simon, C. Y., Suganuma, E., & Tavares, M. C. H. (2008) · Reviews in the Neurosciences · doi:10.1515/revneuro.2008.19.2-3.91 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Computational Modeling of Contrast Sensitivity and Orientation Tuning in First-Episode and Chronic Schizophrenia
Silverstein, S. M., Demmin, D. L., & Bednar, J. A. (2017) · Computational Psychiatry · doi:10.1162/cpsy_a_00005 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Visual system assessment for predicting a transition to psychosis
Diamond, A., Silverstein, S. M., & Keane, B. P. (2022) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-022-02111-9 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Altered depth perception is associated with presence of schizotypal personality traits
Barbato, M., Collinson, S. L., & Casagrande, M. (2011) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2011.576864 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Serotonin Type 6 and 7 Receptors as a Novel Therapeutic Target for the Treatment of Schizophrenia
Tsegay, E. W., Demise, D. G., Hailu, N. A., & Gufue, Z. H. (2020) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s263424 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Stereopsis and magnocellular sensitivity in schizophrenia
SKOTTUN, B. C., & Skoyles, J. R. (2008) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/15622970701849945 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Dorsal attention network activity during perceptual organization is distinct in schizophrenia and predictive of cognitive disorganization
Keane, B. P., Krekelberg, B., Mill, R. D., Silverstein, S. M., Thompson, J. L., Serody, M. R., Barch, D. M., & Cole, M. W. (2022) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.15889 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Can persons with schizophrenia appreciate visual art?
Chen, Y., Norton, D. J., & McBain, R. K. (2008) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2008.06.024 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Association between stereopsis deficits and attention decline in patients with major depressive disorder
Hou, W., Yin, X.-L., Yin, X., Guan, L., Cao, J.-Q., Tang, Z., Jiang, C., Xu, D., Yu, X., Wang, J., et al. (2021) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2021.110267 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Effects of Horizontal Acceleration on Human Visual Acuity and Stereopsis
Horng, C., Hsieh, Y., Tsai, M., Chang, W.-K., Yang, T.-H., Yauan, C.-H., Wang, C., Kuo, W., & Wu, Y.-C. (2015) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph120100910 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Stereopsis deficits in patients with schizophrenia in a Han Chinese population
Hui, L., Xia, H. S., Tang, A. S., Zhou, Y. F., Yin, G., Hu, X. L., Du, X., & Tang, Y. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep45988 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Impaired Binocular Depth Perception in First-Episode Drug-Naive Patients With Schizophrenia
Wang, Z., Yu, Z., Pan, Z., Zhao, K., Zhao, Q., Zhou, D., Shen, H., & Wu, X. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00850 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Brief Monocular Deprivation as an Assay of Short-Term Visual Sensory Plasticity in Schizophrenia – “The Binocular Effect”
Foxe, J. J., Yeap, S., & Leavitt, V. M. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00164 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Nonconscious processing and a novel target for schizophrenia research
Badgaiyan, R. D. (2012) · Open Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4236/ojpsych.2012.224047 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Correcting visual acuity beyond 20/20 improves contour element detection and integration: A cautionary tale for studies of special populations
Keane, B. P., Silverstein, S. M., Papathomas, T. V., & Krekelberg, B. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0310678 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
On using Vernier acuity to assess magnocellular sensitivity
SKOTTUN, B. C., & Skoyles, J. R. (2009) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.07.001 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
THE TIME COURSE OF VISUAL BACKWARD MASKING DEFICITS IN SCHIZOPHRENIA
SKOTTUN, B. C., & Skoyles, J. R. (2011) · Journal of Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.1142/s0219635211002609 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Schizophrenia risk-gene Crmp2 deficiency causes precocious critical period plasticity and deteriorated binocular vision
Zhang, Y., Yao, L., Li, X., Meng, M., Shang, Z., Wang, Q., Xiao, J., Gu, X., Xu, Z., & Zhang, X. (2021) · 中国科学通报：英文版 · doi:10.1016/j.scib.2021.02.011 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Perception of physiological visual illusions by individuals with schizophrenia.
Ciszewski, S., Wichowicz, H., & Żuk, K. (2015) · Psychiatria Polska · doi:10.12740/pp/27072 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Neural correlates of visuoperceptive changes in severe alcohol use disorder: A critical review of neuroimaging and electrophysiological findings
Creupelandt, C., D’Hondt, F., & Maurage, P. (2021) · Journal of Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1002/jnr.24799 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Are masking abnormalities in schizophrenia specific to type-B masking?
SKOTTUN, B. C., & Skoyles, J. R. (2009) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/15622970903051944 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Divergent pattern of functional connectivity within the dorsal attention network differentiates schizophrenia and bipolar disorder patients
Chrobak, A. A., Bielak, S., Nowaczek, D., Żyrkowska, A., Sobczak, A. M., Fąfrowicz, M., Bryll, A., Marek, T., Dudek, D., & Siwek, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1474313 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Vernier Acuity as a Test of Magnocellular Sensitivity
SKOTTUN, B. C., & Skoyles, J. R. (2010) · Neuro-Ophthalmology · doi:10.3109/01658101003682931 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Painting psychosis: an empirical investigation of the self-portraits of Edvard Munch
Bettelheim, E. C., Liu, J., Dazzan, P., & Turkheimer, F. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1643264 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Stereopsis in Early Diabetic Retinopathy
Faraji, M., Kangari, H., Majidi, A. R., & Tabatabaee, S. M. (2020) · Clinical Optometry · doi:10.2147/opto.s232312 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Schizophrenia and Orthoptic Conditions: A Literature Review
McBride, A., & Arblaster, G. (2024) · British and Irish Orthoptic Journal · doi:10.22599/bioj.327 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Visual Neurophysiological Biomarkers for Patient Stratification and Treatment Development Across Neuropsychiatric Disorders
Martı́nez, A., Hillyard, S. A., & Javitt, D. C. (2024) · Advances in neurobiology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-69491-2_25 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citation
Resistance to depth inversion illusions: A biosignature of psychosis with potential utility for monitoring positive symptom emergence and remission in schizophrenia
Fradkin, S. I., & Silverstein, S. M. (2022) · Biomarkers in Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.bionps.2022.100050 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Visual Deficits in Contrast and Depth Perception in Psychotic Disorders: Implications for a Neural Hierarchy
Babadi, B., Holt, D. J., & Tootell, R. B. H. (2025) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2025.05.009 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Binocular Depth Perception in Psychological and Clinical Studies
姚, 玉. (2018) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.12677/ap.2018.812209 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Nonconscious memory
Badgaiyan, R. D. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816115-9.00002-4 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Brain network mechanisms of visual perceptual organization in schizophrenia and bipolar disorderPreprint
Keane, B. P., Krekelberg, B., Mill, R. D., Silverstein, S. M., Thompson, J. L., Serody, M. R., Barch, D. M., & Cole, M. W. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.01.26.22269913 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Study of Calligraphy and Painting among Schizophrenic Patients
Parchegani, R. (2014)
Analysis of Spatial Perception
Parisi, P. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-67860-8_5
Validation of the Scale of Distinctive Elements in the Drawings of Subjects with Psychotic Symptoms: A Study Protocol
Segredou, E., Seretis, D., Nikolaidou, P., Diamantopoulos, M., Therapou, K., Papaefstathiou, G., Athanasiou, N., Poulis, E., Filippi, A., Gavra, A., et al. (2025) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-03394-9_14
Compensatory hallucinogenesis across three neuropsychiatric disorders: a Bayesian account
Vin, R., Galbraith, J. A., Seabury, R. D., Yi, H. Y., Hernández-Busot, G., Oland, L., Epié, B., Trainer, A. E., Fredericks, C. A., & Powers, A. (2026) · Brain Communications · doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcag001
Stereopsis deficits in schizophrenia: a systematic review with exploratory meta-analysis
Bhuvaneswaran, M. V., Karthikeyan, S., Ramamurthy, D., & Haridoss, M. (2026) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-026-08218-3
Интегративная оценка дефицита зрительных функций при шизофрении: мета-аналитический подход
Владимировна, Б. Е., Shurupova, E. Y., & Зеленская, О. С. (2026) · Review of pedagogical research · doi:10.58224/2687-0428-2026-8-6-58-68
Stereopsis deficits and visual-network functional connectivity changes in patients with schizophrenia
Wang, Y.-M., Zhu, Z.-H., Xie, Y.-S., Bie, Q.-W., Yin, X., Hou, W., Yang, Q., Bian, W., Yu, X., & Hui, L. (2026) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2026.111948

Stereopsis deficits in schizophrenia: a systematic review with exploratory meta-analysis
Bhuvaneswaran, M. V., Karthikeyan, S., Ramamurthy, D., & Haridoss, M. (2026) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-026-08218-3
Stereopsis and magnocellular sensitivity in schizophrenia
SKOTTUN, B. C., & Skoyles, J. R. (2008) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/15622970701849945 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Stereopsis deficits in patients with schizophrenia in a Han Chinese population
Hui, L., Xia, H. S., Tang, A. S., Zhou, Y. F., Yin, G., Hu, X. L., Du, X., & Tang, Y. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep45988 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Impaired Binocular Depth Perception in First-Episode Drug-Naive Patients With Schizophrenia
Wang, Z., Yu, Z., Pan, Z., Zhao, K., Zhao, Q., Zhou, D., Shen, H., & Wu, X. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00850 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Altered depth perception is associated with presence of schizotypal personality traits
Barbato, M., Collinson, S. L., & Casagrande, M. (2011) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2011.576864 · Cited by 19 · see citing works

Authors: Schechter, I., Butler, P. D., Jalbrzikowski, M., Pasternak, R., Saperstein, A. M., & Javitt, D. C.
Affiliations: Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research (US)
Corresponding author: Schechter, Isaac
ORCID: Schechter, Isaac
Butler, Pamela D.
Jalbrzikowski, Maria
Saperstein, Alice M.
Javitt, Daniel C.
Venue: Biological Psychiatry
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2006-12
Volume: 60
Issue: 11
Pages: 1282-1284
ISSN: 0006-3223 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.064
PMC: PMC2901805
OpenAlex: W2069450207
Cited by: 53
References: 92
Citations by year: 2026: 5 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 5 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 4 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 2
FWCI: 1.49
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Biological Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH066374, K02-MH-01439, R01 MH66374, R01 MH49334, R01MH049334, K02MH001439)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Hallucinations in medical conditions
Keywords: schizophrenia, stereopsis, stereoacuity, early visual processing, sensory dysfunction, neurocognitive impairment
MeSH terms: Adult, Depth Perception, Female, Humans, Male, Photic Stimulation, Schizophrenia, Sensation Disorders, Reproducibility of Results, Statistics, Nonparametric

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A new dimension of sensory dysfunction: stereopsis deficits in schizophrenia

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