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Nothing is safe: Intolerance of uncertainty is associated with compromised fear extinction learning
Open accessAbstract
Extinction-resistant fear is considered to be a central feature of pathological anxiety. Here we sought to determine if individual differences in Intolerance of Uncertainty (IU), a potential risk factor for anxiety disorders, underlies compromised fear extinction. We tested this hypothesis by recording electrodermal activity in 38 healthy participants during fear acquisition and extinction. We assessed the temporality of fear extinction, by examining early and late extinction learning. During early extinction, low IU was associated with larger skin conductance responses to learned threat vs. safety cues, whereas high IU was associated with skin conductance responding to both threat and safety cues, but no cue discrimination. During late extinction, low IU showed no difference in skin conductance between learned threat and safety cues, whilst high IU predicted continued fear expression to learned threat, indexed by larger skin conductance to threat vs. safety cues. These findings suggest a critical role of uncertainty-based mechanisms in the maintenance of learned fear.
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“Two recent studies have demonstrated that individuals with high intolerance of uncertainty do not discriminate between threat and safety cues during fear acquisition and have slower fear extinction than those with low intolerance of uncertainty (Morriss, Macdonald, & van Reekum, 2016; Morriss, Christakou, & van Reekum, 2016).”
From Enhancing Inhibitory Learning: The Utility of Variability in Exposure (2019) · cites this paper as Morriss, Christakou, & van Reekum, 2016
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“The majority of studies have found specificity of IU over other self-reported anxiety measures in predicting 1) differences in SCR to both learned threat and safety during early trials, 2) greater SCR to learned threat cues versus safety cues during late trials (36,37), or 3) greater SCR to learned threat cues across all trials (15,35).”
From I Doubt It Is Safe: A Meta-analysis of Self-reported Intolerance of Uncertainty and Threat Extinction Training (2021) · cites this paper as [37]
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“Intolerance of uncertainty may affect fear learning and fear extinction.”
From Enhancing Inhibitory Learning: The Utility of Variability in Exposure (2019) · cites this paper as Morriss, Christakou, & van Reekum, 2016
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“Two recent studies have demonstrated that individuals with high intolerance of uncertainty do not discriminate between threat and safety cues during fear acquisition and have slower fear extinction than those with low intolerance of uncertainty (Morriss, Macdonald, & van Reekum, 2016; Morriss, Christakou, & van Reekum, 2016).”
From Enhancing Inhibitory Learning: The Utility of Variability in Exposure (2019) · cites this paper as Morriss, Christakou, & van Reekum, 2016
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“In previous research, a few studies observed differences in SCR to both learned threat and safety cues during the early trials of threat extinction training (36,37).”
From I Doubt It Is Safe: A Meta-analysis of Self-reported Intolerance of Uncertainty and Threat Extinction Training (2021) · cites this paper as [37]
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“Notably, the original studies that found a relationship between IU and early extinction used a 100% reinforcement rate during acquisition (36,37), where the change in contingencies between acquisition and extinction are more obvious.”
From I Doubt It Is Safe: A Meta-analysis of Self-reported Intolerance of Uncertainty and Threat Extinction Training (2021) · cites this paper as [37]
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“We have previously shown the same experimental design to successfully evoke concomitant threat extinction psychophysiology and brain activation in adult populations41,44, similar to other labs using 100% reinforcement45.”
From Multimodal evidence for delayed threat extinction learning in adolescence and young adulthood (2019) · cites this paper as [44]
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“The conditioning task was identical to those used in previous studies41,42,44.”
From Multimodal evidence for delayed threat extinction learning in adolescence and young adulthood (2019) · cites this paper as [44]
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“From this perspective it is accepted that intolerance of uncertainty is the underlying component of anxiety disorders (Morriss et al., 2016).”
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“…of studies have found IU to modulate different readout measures during threat extinction training (Bauer et al., 2020; Morriss, 2019; Morriss et al., 2015; Morriss et al., 2016a; Morriss et al., 2016b; Morriss et al., 2019c; Morriss and van Reekum, 2019; Wake et al., 2021; Wake et al., 2020).”
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“A growing literature suggests that this intolerance of uncertainty (58) may represent a transdiagnostic construct.”
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“The majority of studies have found specificity of IU over other self-reported anxiety measures in predicting 1) differences in SCR to both learned threat and safety during early trials, 2) greater SCR to learned threat cues versus safety cues during late trials (36,37), or 3) greater SCR to learned threat cues across…”
BackgroundResultIntolerance of uncertainty and threat generalization: A replication and extension
Bauer, E., MacNamara, A., Sandre, A., Lonsdorf, T. B., Weinberg, A., Morriss, J., & van Reekum, C. M. (2020) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13546 · Cited by 64
“, 2016; Nelson et al., 2015). To determine whether IU is associated with threat generalization as evidenced by self-reported uneasiness ratings and skin conductance response (SCR), Morriss, Macdonald, et al. (2016) used a CS+ and three perceptually graded GS that resembled the CS+ to varying degrees (GS1, most similar…”
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“The sound consisted of a fear inducing female scream used in our previous experiments (Morriss et al., 2015; Morriss et al., 2016).”
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“The sound consisted of a threat inducing female scream used in previous experiments (Morriss et al., 2015; Morriss et al., 2016).”
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“Thus, intolerance to uncertainty is considered as one of the main underlying components of anxiety disorders [13], Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) [14], post-traumatic stress disorder in depression [15], depression [16] and panic disorder [17].”
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“IUS scores have been associated with slowed extinction to threat cues (Morriss et al., 2016, 2019) and with more spontaneous recovery of learned threat responses (Dunsmoor, Campese, et al., 2015).”
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“Intolerance to uncertainty has been found among individuals diagnosed with anxiety disorder (Morriss et al., 2016), post-traumatic stress disorder, and depression disorder (Hollingsworth et al.”
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“…IU show biased uncertainty about safety, social evaluation, or health status, providing a risk for manifold maladaptive behaviors (Birrell et al., 2011; Carleton et al., 2012; Grenier et al., 2005; Lonsdorf and Merz, 2017; Morriss et al., 2016a, 2016b; Morriss et al., 2021a; Morriss et al., 2021b).”
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“…that several studies have found a relation between IU and skin conductance with differing reinforcement rates (e. g., Sjouwerman et al., 2017; Bauer et al., 2020; Morriss et al., 2016b), though other studies did not report such a relation (see Morriss et al., 2021; Klingelhöfer-Jens et al., 2021).”
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“…IU and skin conductance responses during threat extinction training (Goldfarb et al., 2021; Kanen et al., 2021; Lucas et al., 2018; Morriss, 2019; Morriss et al., 2015, 2016, 2020; Morriss and van Reekum, 2019; Sjouwerman et al., 2016, 2020, un-published data 2020; Steinman et al., 2022;…”
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“In conclusion, considering the central role of IU in distress management [45,46], anxiety and fear, as well as the power of IU to compromise fear extinction learning [58] and its ability to amplify risk estimates [17,55], the current results provide a potentially useful new path for future investigations: monitoring t…”
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“It is also associated with different psychopathologies (Dugas et al., 1997; Morriss et al., 2016).”
Fear expression is suppressed by tyrosine administration
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Dan, O., Wertheimer, E. K., & Levy, I. (2021) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.09.019 · Cited by 10
The role of intolerance of uncertainty in the acquisition and extinction of reward
Morriss, J., Biagi, N., Lonsdorf, T. B., & Andreatta, M. (2021) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.15173 · Cited by 9
Patterson, R. R., Lipp, O. V., & Luck, C. C. (2022) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2022.2047897 · Cited by 9
“We administered self-report questionnaires to control for differences between groups on dimensions that have been shown to influence fear learning (Böhnlein et al., 2019; Morriss et al., 2016).”
MethodDecision-making in uncertain contexts: The role of autonomic markers in resolving indecision
Lees, T., White, R., Zhang, X., Ram, N., & Gatzke‐Kopp, L. M. (2022) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2022.05.014 · Cited by 8
Intolerance of uncertainty and neural measures of anticipation and reactivity for affective stimuli
Wiese, A. D., Lim, S.-L., Filion, D. L., & Kang, S. S. (2022) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2022.11.010 · Cited by 8
McEvoy, P. M., Carleton, R. N., Correa, K. A., Shankman, S. A., & Shihata, S. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108140416.008 · Cited by 9
Yılmaz, Y., Bahadır, E., & Erdoğan, A. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.5505/kpd.2021.40221 · Cited by 9
“Duygusal zorlukların altında yatan ve bilinmeyenin yoğun olarak algılandığı durumlarda kaygıya neden olan korku olarak tanımlanana belirsizliğe tahammülsüzlük, anksiyete bozukluklarının altında yatan ana bileşen olarak kabul edilmektedir (10, 11).”
The dynamics of pain avoidance: the exploration–exploitation dilemma
Krypotos, A., Crombez, G., & Vlaeyen, J. W. S. (2024) · Pain · doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000003222 · Cited by 8
Fu, H., Xia, Z., Tan, Y., Peng, Y. L., Fan, C., & Guo, X. (2024) · Journal of Construction Engineering and Management · doi:10.1061/jcemd4.coeng-14618 · Cited by 8
Mouguiama-Daouda, C., Blanchard, M. A., & Heeren, A. (2023) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/cdz8g · Cited by 8
Genç, A. B. (2024) · Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi · doi:10.17066/tpdrd.1311383_7 · Cited by 7
Погорільська, Н., Synelnykov, R. Y., Palamar, B. I., Тукаєв, С., & Nezhyva, L. L. (2021) · Wiadomości Lekarskie · doi:10.36740/wlek202106104 · Cited by 7
“In conditions where uncertainty is perceived especially intensely, intolerance to uncertainty against the background of aggravating emotional problems leads to the development of anxiety disorders [6; 7; 8; 9].”
BackgroundA Preliminary Test of Novelty-Facilitated Extinction in Individuals With Pathological Anxiety
Steinman, S. A., Dunsmoor, J. E., Gazman, Z., Stovezky, Y. R., Pascucci, O., Pomerenke, J., Phelps, E. A., Fyer, A. J., & Simpson, H. B. (2022) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2022.873489 · Cited by 7
Şirin, H. D., Şirin, E. F., & Erdoğan, A. (2023) · Gazi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.53434/gbesbd.1190801 · Cited by 7
Intolerance of uncertainty and novelty facilitated extinction: The impact of reinforcement schedule
Wake, S. J., Dodd, H. F., & Morriss, J. (2021) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12538 · Cited by 5
Kumar, S., Davidson, C. A., Saini, R., & Jain, R. (2024) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.2024.2372578 · Cited by 5
“Moreover, studies have shown that IU is a determinant of aberrant fear conditioning (Morriss et al., 2016) and aberrant fear conditioning is characteristic of individuals with high schizotypal personality (González-Rodríguez et al., 2021) and schizophrenia (Holt et al., 2012; Jensen et al., 2008;…”
Wendt, J., & Morriss, J. (2022) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2022.05.005 · Cited by 5
Mouakket, S., & Aboelmaged, M. G. S. (2023) · Information Development · doi:10.1177/02666669231213940 · Cited by 6
“IU may increase the effect of post-traumatic stress disorder and anxiety disorder (Morriss et al. 2016; Hollingsworth et al. 2018).”
What characterizes and determines threat-related biases in fear and anxiety?
Aue, T., & Okon‐Singer, H. (2016) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.11.005 · Cited by 4
Assessment of intolerance of uncertainty: Validation of a modified anagram task
O’Bryan, E. M., Beadel, J. R., McLeish, A. C., & Teachman, B. A. (2021) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2021.101671 · Cited by 4
Harnessing temperament to elucidate the complexities of serotonin function
Kanen, J. W., Robbins, T. W., & Trofimova, I. N. (2022) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2022.101108 · Cited by 7
Cobos, P. L., Valle, T. M., Quintero, M. J., & López, F. J. (2023) · Collabra Psychology · doi:10.1525/collabra.84914 · Cited by 4
Elizabeth A. Hebert, J. M. S., & Dugas, M. J. (2017) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781483365817.n761 · Cited by 4
Can Threat Information Bias Fear Learning? Some Tentative Results and Methodological Considerations
Mertens, G., & Houwer, J. D. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.5127/jep.060616 · Cited by 3
“These equivocal findings observed here, as well as those observed in earlier studies, may indicate that the STAI-T does not essentially measures the cognitive mechanisms involved in (maladaptive) fear acquisition, extinction or reinstatement (see Morriss et al., 2016 for a discussion).”
ResultJohnson, D. J., Ho, W., Uddin, B., Tetteh-Quarshie, S., & Morriss, J. (2023) · Collabra Psychology · doi:10.1525/collabra.74822 · Cited by 4
“Morriss, Christakou, et al. (2016)) used a fear generalization paradigm to show that high IU was associated with higher threat generalization from threat to safety cues during acquisition.”
Shifty Eyes: The Impact of Intolerance of Uncertainty on Gaze Behaviour During Threat Conditioning
Rodriguez-Sobstel, C., Wake, S. J., Dodd, H. F., McSorley, E., van Reekum, C. M., & Morriss, J. (2023) · Collabra Psychology · doi:10.1525/collabra.82229 · Cited by 3
“…(e.g. skin conductance, corru-gator supercilii) to the CS+ vs. CS-during threat extinction learning and retention (Bauer et al., 2020; Morriss, 2019; Morriss, Christakou, et al., 2016; Morriss et al., 2015, 2019; Morriss, Macdonald, et al., 2016; Morriss & van Reekum, 2019; Wake et al., 2021).”
Akgül, Ö., Uzgan, B. Ö., Tetik, M., & Aykaç, C. (2023) · Turkish Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.5080/u27017 · Cited by 5
Morriss, J., Wake, S. J., elizabeth, C., & van Reekum, C. M. (2021) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/nrqv6 · Cited by 7
Finke, J. B., & Klucken, T. (2025) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2025.109046 · Cited by 4
“In particular, although some studies have successfully induced conditioned fear using unpleasant, arousing sounds such as screams as US (e.g., Morriss et al., 2016), very little is known about the capacity of auditory sexual stimuli (ASS) to act as reinforcers on their own (without additional…”
Intolerance of uncertainty modulates amygdala habituation to emotional faces
Jeon, J., Kim, H., Hur, J., & Kim, M. J. (2026) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2026.121691 · Cited by 2
Kelek, Ş., UÇAR, M. S., YILDIRIM, N. H., & Düşünceli̇, B. (2022) · Sakarya University Journal of Education · doi:10.19126/suje.1057831 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Morriss, J., Christakou, A., & van Reekum, C. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Reading (GB)
- Venue
- Biological Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-12
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- Pt B
- Pages
- 187-193
- ISSN
- 0301-0511 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5154327
- OpenAlex
- W2378955611
- Cited by
- 152
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 5.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Biological Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- CentAUR (University of Reading) (submittedVersion)
- ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Centre for Integrative Neuroscience and Neurodynamics (MR/J003980/1)
- Natalia Kontoudaki & Karolina Tokarska for their help in collecting the data
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- intolerance of uncertainty, fear extinction, fear acquisition, anxiety disorders, skin conductance response, electrodermal activity, cue discrimination, individual differences
- MeSH terms
- Acoustic Stimulation, Adolescent, Adult, Anxiety Disorders, Arousal, Autonomic Nervous System, Conditioning, Classical, Cues, Extinction, Psychological, Fear, Female, Galvanic Skin Response, Humans, Male, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Risk Factors, Safety, Uncertainty, Young Adult
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