Nothing is safe: Intolerance of uncertainty is associated with compromised fear extinction learning
Open accessAbstract
Extinction-resistant fear is considered to be a central feature of pathological anxiety. Here we sought to determine if individual differences in Intolerance of Uncertainty (IU), a potential risk factor for anxiety disorders, underlies compromised fear extinction. We tested this hypothesis by recording electrodermal activity in 38 healthy participants during fear acquisition and extinction. We assessed the temporality of fear extinction, by examining early and late extinction learning. During early extinction, low IU was associated with larger skin conductance responses to learned threat vs. safety cues, whereas high IU was associated with skin conductance responding to both threat and safety cues, but no cue discrimination. During late extinction, low IU showed no difference in skin conductance between learned threat and safety cues, whilst high IU predicted continued fear expression to learned threat, indexed by larger skin conductance to threat vs. safety cues. These findings suggest a critical role of uncertainty-based mechanisms in the maintenance of learned fear.
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People high in intolerance of uncertainty do not discriminate between threat and safety cues during fear acquisition.
“Two recent studies have demonstrated that individuals with high intolerance of uncertainty do not discriminate between threat and safety cues during fear acquisition and have slower fear extinction than those with low intolerance of uncertainty (Morriss, Macdonald, & van Reekum, 2016; Morriss, Christakou, & van Reekum, 2016).”
From Enhancing Inhibitory Learning: The Utility of Variability in Exposure (2019) · cites this paper as Morriss, Christakou, & van Reekum, 2016
The Discussion reports no evidence that intolerance of uncertainty predicted differential responses to threat and safety cues during fear acquisition. It says high-IU individuals did not generalize fear to safety cues during acquisition under the study’s 100% reinforcement schedule; the reported generalization occurred during extinction, not acquisition. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe majority of studies have found specificity of IU over other self-reported anxiety measures in predicting differences in SCR during threat extinction training.
“The majority of studies have found specificity of IU over other self-reported anxiety measures in predicting 1) differences in SCR to both learned threat and safety during early trials, 2) greater SCR to learned threat cues versus safety cues during late trials (36,37), or 3) greater SCR to learned threat cues across all trials (15,35).”
From I Doubt It Is Safe: A Meta-analysis of Self-reported Intolerance of Uncertainty and Threat Extinction Training (2021) · cites this paper as [37]
The Results (SCR magnitude) explicitly report no specificity of IU over the other anxiety measures for the early or late learned-threat-versus-safety SCR differences. The paper finds IU specificity only for the change in responses to safety cues from early to late extinction. Thus, although it reports IU-related SCR differences, it does not support the claimed specificity for those early- or late-trial comparisons. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIntolerance of uncertainty may influence fear learning and fear extinction.
“Intolerance of uncertainty may affect fear learning and fear extinction.”
From Enhancing Inhibitory Learning: The Utility of Variability in Exposure (2019) · cites this paper as Morriss, Christakou, & van Reekum, 2016
The Discussion reports that higher intolerance of uncertainty predicted greater fear expression during extinction, supporting the fear-extinction part of the claim. It also says the study found no evidence that intolerance of uncertainty predicted differential responses during fear acquisition and calls for further work on conditioned-fear acquisition. Thus, an effect on initial fear learning is not established by this paper. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPeople high in intolerance of uncertainty show slower fear extinction than people low in intolerance of uncertainty.
“Two recent studies have demonstrated that individuals with high intolerance of uncertainty do not discriminate between threat and safety cues during fear acquisition and have slower fear extinction than those with low intolerance of uncertainty (Morriss, Macdonald, & van Reekum, 2016; Morriss, Christakou, & van Reekum, 2016).”
From Enhancing Inhibitory Learning: The Utility of Variability in Exposure (2019) · cites this paper as Morriss, Christakou, & van Reekum, 2016
A few previous studies observed differences in SCR to both learned threat and safety cues during the early trials of threat extinction training.
“In previous research, a few studies observed differences in SCR to both learned threat and safety cues during the early trials of threat extinction training (36,37).”
From I Doubt It Is Safe: A Meta-analysis of Self-reported Intolerance of Uncertainty and Threat Extinction Training (2021) · cites this paper as [37]
The original studies that found a relationship between IU and early extinction used a 100% reinforcement rate during acquisition, where the change in contingencies between acquisition and extinction are more obvious.
“Notably, the original studies that found a relationship between IU and early extinction used a 100% reinforcement rate during acquisition (36,37), where the change in contingencies between acquisition and extinction are more obvious.”
From I Doubt It Is Safe: A Meta-analysis of Self-reported Intolerance of Uncertainty and Threat Extinction Training (2021) · cites this paper as [37]
The same experimental design has previously been shown to successfully evoke concomitant threat extinction psychophysiology and brain activation in adult populations.
“We have previously shown the same experimental design to successfully evoke concomitant threat extinction psychophysiology and brain activation in adult populations41,44, similar to other labs using 100% reinforcement45.”
From Multimodal evidence for delayed threat extinction learning in adolescence and young adulthood (2019) · cites this paper as [44]
The conditioning task was identical to those used in previous studies.
“The conditioning task was identical to those used in previous studies41,42,44.”
From Multimodal evidence for delayed threat extinction learning in adolescence and young adulthood (2019) · cites this paper as [44]
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“The majority of studies have found specificity of IU over other self-reported anxiety measures in predicting 1) differences in SCR to both learned threat and safety during early trials, 2) greater SCR to learned threat cues versus safety cues during late trials (36,37), or 3) greater SCR to learned threat cues across…”
BackgroundResultIntolerance of uncertainty and threat generalization: A replication and extension
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- Authors
- Morriss, J., Christakou, A., & van Reekum, C. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Reading (GB)
- Venue
- Biological Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-12
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- Pt B
- Pages
- 187-193
- ISSN
- 0301-0511 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5154327
- OpenAlex
- W2378955611
- Cited by
- 152
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 5.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Biological Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- CentAUR (University of Reading) (submittedVersion)
- ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Centre for Integrative Neuroscience and Neurodynamics (MR/J003980/1)
- Natalia Kontoudaki & Karolina Tokarska for their help in collecting the data
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- intolerance of uncertainty, fear extinction, fear acquisition, anxiety disorders, skin conductance response, electrodermal activity, cue discrimination, individual differences
- MeSH terms
- Acoustic Stimulation, Adolescent, Adult, Anxiety Disorders, Arousal, Autonomic Nervous System, Conditioning, Classical, Cues, Extinction, Psychological, Fear, Female, Galvanic Skin Response, Humans, Male, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Risk Factors, Safety, Uncertainty, Young Adult
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