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Role of the microbiota in immunity and inflammation.
Open accessAbstract
The microbiota plays a fundamental role on the induction, training, and function of the host immune system. In return, the immune system has largely evolved as a means to maintain the symbiotic relationship of the host with these highly diverse and evolving microbes. When operating optimally, this immune system-microbiota alliance allows the induction of protective responses to pathogens and the maintenance of regulatory pathways involved in the maintenance of tolerance to innocuous antigens. However, in high-income countries, overuse of antibiotics, changes in diet, and elimination of constitutive partners, such as nematodes, may have selected for a microbiota that lack the resilience and diversity required to establish balanced immune responses. This phenomenon is proposed to account for some of the dramatic rise in autoimmune and inflammatory disorders in parts of the world where our symbiotic relationship with the microbiota has been the most affected.
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“While the impact of most of these substances on human health is not entirely clear at this point, evidence suggests that they are potentially harmful, with possible carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic effects and reproductive developmental toxicity [66]; in addition, they may disrupt the normal functioning of gut microbiota [67] and the endocrine system [68].”
From Bottled Water: An Evidence-Based Overview of Economic Viability, Environmental Impact, and Social Equity (2023) · cites this paper as [67]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The microbiota in the stomach promotes gut health and immunological balance by suppressing inflammation (10).”
From Unveiling the therapeutic symphony of probiotics, prebiotics, and postbiotics in gut-immune harmony (2024) · cites this paper as [10]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“endogenous symbiont microorganisms, the so-called microbiota, can modulate gene expression, induce preferential food intake (Aydin, 2007), influence pH, redox balance and the ratio between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines (Belkaid and Hand, 2014).”
From Bioactive Molecules Released in Food by Lactic Acid Bacteria: Encrypted Peptides and Biogenic Amines (2016) · cites this paper as Belkaid and Hand, 2014
In the citing paper
“The intestinal microbiota play a role in host physiology.1”
From Microbiota as Predictor of Mortality in Allogeneic Hematopoietic-Cell Transplantation (2020) · cites this paper as [1]
In the citing paper
“The gut microbial population plays a key role in training, functioning and stimulating the host immune system, with the final effect of developing tolerance towards beneficial microbiota and eliciting immune response against gut pathogens [76].”
From Gut Microbiota and Cancer: From Pathogenesis to Therapy (2019) · cites this paper as [76]
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“Several studies have reported an association of dysbiosis with chronic inflammation, which may in turn result in an association with bone diseases [129,132,215,216].”
From Bone diseases in patients with chronic liver disease (2019) · cites this paper as [215]
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“Variations in these early interactions appear to set the tone of the mucosal and systemic immune systems into childhood and even adult life (Belkaid and Hand, 2014).”
From Viral Infections, the Microbiome, and Probiotics (2021) · cites this paper as Belkaid and Hand, 2014
In the citing paper
“The gut microbiota play a critical role in the development of the intestinal architecture and mucosal immune system and are particularly important for regulation of the immune system in the gut [reviewed in [13, 14]].”
From The Gut Microbiota and Dysbiosis in Autism Spectrum Disorders (2018) · cites this paper as [13]
In the citing paper
“These mice experience immune dysfunction and are more susceptible to infections than mice kept in conventional facilities [13, 15].”
From The Gut Microbiota and Dysbiosis in Autism Spectrum Disorders (2018) · cites this paper as [13]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Belkaid, Y., & Hand, T. W.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Corresponding author
- Belkaid, Yasmine
- Venue
- Cell
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-03
- Volume
- 157
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 121-141
- ISSN
- 0092-8674 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4056765
- OpenAlex
- W2077553363
- Cited by
- 5,385
- References
- 258
- Citations by year
- 2026: 492 · 2025: 632 · 2024: 666 · 2023: 593 · 2022: 573 · 2021: 685 · 2020: 471 · 2019: 410 · 2018: 306 · 2017: 250 · 2016: 157 · 2015: 105 · 2014: 45
- FWCI
- 17.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Cell (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (ZIAAI001115)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune Response and Inflammation
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › T-cell and B-cell Immunology
- Keywords
- gut microbiota, host-microbe symbiosis, immune system development, immune tolerance, inflammation, autoimmune disease, antibiotic overuse, diet, helminths, microbial diversity, immune resilience
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Anti-Bacterial Agents, Bacteria, Fungi, Humans, Immune System, Inflammation, Symbiosis, Bacterial Physiological Phenomena, Microbiota
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