Role of the microbiota in immunity and inflammation.
Open accessAbstract
The microbiota plays a fundamental role on the induction, training, and function of the host immune system. In return, the immune system has largely evolved as a means to maintain the symbiotic relationship of the host with these highly diverse and evolving microbes. When operating optimally, this immune system-microbiota alliance allows the induction of protective responses to pathogens and the maintenance of regulatory pathways involved in the maintenance of tolerance to innocuous antigens. However, in high-income countries, overuse of antibiotics, changes in diet, and elimination of constitutive partners, such as nematodes, may have selected for a microbiota that lack the resilience and diversity required to establish balanced immune responses. This phenomenon is proposed to account for some of the dramatic rise in autoimmune and inflammatory disorders in parts of the world where our symbiotic relationship with the microbiota has been the most affected.
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Evidence suggests that contaminants of emerging concern are potentially harmful, with possible carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic effects and reproductive developmental toxicity; they may also disrupt gut microbiota and the endocrine system.
“While the impact of most of these substances on human health is not entirely clear at this point, evidence suggests that they are potentially harmful, with possible carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic effects and reproductive developmental toxicity [66]; in addition, they may disrupt the normal functioning of gut microbiota [67] and the endocrine system [68].”
From Bottled Water: An Evidence-Based Overview of Economic Viability, Environmental Impact, and Social Equity (2023) · cites this paper as [67]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe microbiota in the stomach promotes gut health and immunological balance by suppressing inflammation.
“The microbiota in the stomach promotes gut health and immunological balance by suppressing inflammation (10).”
From Unveiling the therapeutic symphony of probiotics, prebiotics, and postbiotics in gut-immune harmony (2024) · cites this paper as [10]
The sections “Induction of regulatory responses by the microbiota” and “Role of the microbiota in IBD and autoimmune disease” describe microbiota-associated immune regulation and limits on gastrointestinal inflammation. They discuss gut and colonic microbiota, however, not microbiota specifically in the stomach; no page numbers are supplied for these passages. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMicrobiota can modulate gene expression, induce preferential food intake, influence pH, redox balance and the ratio between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines.
“endogenous symbiont microorganisms, the so-called microbiota, can modulate gene expression, induce preferential food intake (Aydin, 2007), influence pH, redox balance and the ratio between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines (Belkaid and Hand, 2014).”
From Bioactive Molecules Released in Food by Lactic Acid Bacteria: Encrypted Peptides and Biogenic Amines (2016) · cites this paper as Belkaid and Hand, 2014
Intestinal microbiota influence host physiology.
“The intestinal microbiota play a role in host physiology.1”
From Microbiota as Predictor of Mortality in Allogeneic Hematopoietic-Cell Transplantation (2020) · cites this paper as [1]
The gut microbial population plays a key role in training, functioning and stimulating the host immune system, developing tolerance towards beneficial microbiota and eliciting immune response against gut pathogens.
“The gut microbial population plays a key role in training, functioning and stimulating the host immune system, with the final effect of developing tolerance towards beneficial microbiota and eliciting immune response against gut pathogens [76].”
From Gut Microbiota and Cancer: From Pathogenesis to Therapy (2019) · cites this paper as [76]
Several studies have reported an association of dysbiosis with chronic inflammation, which may in turn result in an association with bone diseases.
“Several studies have reported an association of dysbiosis with chronic inflammation, which may in turn result in an association with bone diseases [129,132,215,216].”
From Bone diseases in patients with chronic liver disease (2019) · cites this paper as [215]
Variations in early life microbiome-immune interactions appear to set the tone of the mucosal and systemic immune systems into childhood and even adult life.
“Variations in these early interactions appear to set the tone of the mucosal and systemic immune systems into childhood and even adult life (Belkaid and Hand, 2014).”
From Viral Infections, the Microbiome, and Probiotics (2021) · cites this paper as Belkaid and Hand, 2014
The gut microbiota play a critical role in the development of the intestinal architecture and mucosal immune system and are important for regulation of the immune system in the gut.
“The gut microbiota play a critical role in the development of the intestinal architecture and mucosal immune system and are particularly important for regulation of the immune system in the gut [reviewed in [13, 14]].”
From The Gut Microbiota and Dysbiosis in Autism Spectrum Disorders (2018) · cites this paper as [13]
Germ-free mice experience immune dysfunction and are more susceptible to infections than mice kept in conventional facilities.
“These mice experience immune dysfunction and are more susceptible to infections than mice kept in conventional facilities [13, 15].”
From The Gut Microbiota and Dysbiosis in Autism Spectrum Disorders (2018) · cites this paper as [13]
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- Authors
- Belkaid, Y., & Hand, T. W.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Corresponding author
- Belkaid, Yasmine
- Venue
- Cell
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-03
- Volume
- 157
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 121-141
- ISSN
- 0092-8674 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4056765
- OpenAlex
- W2077553363
- Cited by
- 5,385
- References
- 258
- Citations by year
- 2026: 492 · 2025: 632 · 2024: 666 · 2023: 593 · 2022: 573 · 2021: 685 · 2020: 471 · 2019: 410 · 2018: 306 · 2017: 250 · 2016: 157 · 2015: 105 · 2014: 45
- FWCI
- 17.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Cell (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (ZIAAI001115)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune Response and Inflammation
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › T-cell and B-cell Immunology
- Keywords
- gut microbiota, host-microbe symbiosis, immune system development, immune tolerance, inflammation, autoimmune disease, antibiotic overuse, diet, helminths, microbial diversity, immune resilience
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Anti-Bacterial Agents, Bacteria, Fungi, Humans, Immune System, Inflammation, Symbiosis, Bacterial Physiological Phenomena, Microbiota
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