Commensal microbe-derived butyrate induces the differentiation of colonic regulatory T cells
Abstract
Gut commensal microbes shape the mucosal immune system by regulating the differentiation and expansion of several types of T cell. Clostridia, a dominant class of commensal microbe, can induce colonic regulatory T (Treg) cells, which have a central role in the suppression of inflammatory and allergic responses. However, the molecular mechanisms by which commensal microbes induce colonic Treg cells have been unclear. Here we show that a large bowel microbial fermentation product, butyrate, induces the differentiation of colonic Treg cells in mice. A comparative NMR-based metabolome analysis suggests that the luminal concentrations of short-chain fatty acids positively correlates with the number of Treg cells in the colon. Among short-chain fatty acids, butyrate induced the differentiation of Treg cells in vitro and in vivo, and ameliorated the development of colitis induced by adoptive transfer of CD4(+) CD45RB(hi) T cells in Rag1(-/-) mice. Treatment of naive T cells under the Treg-cell-polarizing conditions with butyrate enhanced histone H3 acetylation in the promoter and conserved non-coding sequence regions of the Foxp3 locus, suggesting a possible mechanism for how microbial-derived butyrate regulates the differentiation of Treg cells. Our findings provide new insight into the mechanisms by which host-microbe interactions establish immunological homeostasis in the gut.
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Butyrate restricts inflammation by promoting the differentiation of Treg cells and supporting the functions of regulatory B cells.
“For instance, butyrate has been shown to restrict inflammation by promoting the differentiation of Treg cells and supporting the functions of regulatory B cells.706–708”
From Microbiota–gut–brain axis and its therapeutic applications in neurodegenerative diseases (2024) · cites this paper as [708]
SCFAs promote the expansion of Tregs but also seem to improve the function of effector T cells.
“These were shown to promote the expansion of Tregs, but they also seem to improve the function of effector T cells10–15.”
From Microbial short-chain fatty acids modulate CD8+ T cell responses and improve adoptive immunotherapy for cancer (2021) · cites this paper as [12]
Commensal-derived butyrate induces epigenetic reprogramming of Tregs by enhancing acetylation of histone H3 in the promoter and conserved non-coding sequence regions of the Foxp3 locus.
“Commensal-derived butyrate was shown to induce epigenetic reprogramming of Tregs by enhancing the acetylation of histone H3 in the promoter and conserved non-coding sequence regions of the Foxp3 locus12.”
From Microbial short-chain fatty acids modulate CD8+ T cell responses and improve adoptive immunotherapy for cancer (2021) · cites this paper as [12]
Both propionate and butyrate could act as histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor, through which SCFA increased histone acetylation in the promoter and conserved non-coding sequence (CNS) regions of the Foxp3 locus.
“In addition, both propionate and butyrate could act as histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor [74–76], through which SCFA increased histone acetylation in the promoter and conserved non-coding sequence (CNS) regions of the Foxp3 locus, the master transcription factor and specific marker of suppressive Tregs [75].”
From Gut microbiota-mediated immunomodulation in tumor (2021) · cites this paper as [75]
Butyrate regulates anti-inflammatory responses by controlling the expression of Foxp3, which is essential for suppressing excessive inflammation.
“Butyrate plays a crucial role in regulating anti-inflammatory responses by controlling the expression of forkhead box protein P3 (Foxp3), essential for suppressing excessive inflammation [57].”
From The Gut–Brain–Microbiota Connection and Its Role in Autism Spectrum Disorders (2025) · cites this paper as [57]
De novo differentiation of cTregs relies on HDAC inhibition in dendritic cells and T cells, which acetate does not promote.
“Conversely, the de novo differentiation of cTregs relies on HDAC inhibition in both DCs and T cells, which acetate does not promote (Arpaia et al., 2013; Furusawa et al., 2013).”
From Understanding the Holobiont: How Microbial Metabolites Affect Human Health and Shape the Immune System (2017) · cites this paper as Furusawa et al., 2013
Propionate and butyrate, but not acetate, increase de novo differentiation of naive T cells into Tregs.
“whereas propionate and butyrate, but not acetate, increase the de novo differentiation of naive T cells into Tregs (Arpaia et al., 2013; Furusawa et al., 2013; Singh et al., 2014; Smith et al., 2013).”
From Understanding the Holobiont: How Microbial Metabolites Affect Human Health and Shape the Immune System (2017) · cites this paper as Furusawa et al., 2013
Acetate and propionate, but not butyrate, stimulate expansion of pre-existing colonic Tregs.
“acetate and propionate, but not butyrate, stimulate the expansion of pre-existing colonic Tregs (cTregs)”
From Understanding the Holobiont: How Microbial Metabolites Affect Human Health and Shape the Immune System (2017) · cites this paper as Furusawa et al., 2013
Oral administration of short-chain fatty acids protects mice from T cell-induced colitis by inducing immunosuppressive regulatory T cells.
“oral administration of SCFAs protected mice from T cell-induced colitis by inducing immunosuppressive Tregs [38-40].”
From Antibiotic-Induced Changes in the Intestinal Microbiota and Disease (2016) · cites this paper as [39]
Short-chain fatty acids act on dendritic cells, increasing their capacity to drive naïve T cell differentiation into regulatory T cells.
“and on DCs, conferring a higher capacity to drive naïve T cell differentiation into Tregs [38-40].”
From Antibiotic-Induced Changes in the Intestinal Microbiota and Disease (2016) · cites this paper as [39]
Short-chain fatty acids are present at reduced concentrations in fecal pellets of germ-free or antibiotic-treated mice.
“SCFAs were present at reduced concentrations in the fecal pellets of GF or antibiotic-treated mice”
From Antibiotic-Induced Changes in the Intestinal Microbiota and Disease (2016) · cites this paper as [39]
Short-chain fatty acids act directly on T cells via GPCR43, enhancing FoxP3 expression through DNA acetylation.
“SCFAs were found to act directly on T cells via the receptor GPCR43, thus enhancing FoxP3 expression through DNA acetylation”
From Antibiotic-Induced Changes in the Intestinal Microbiota and Disease (2016) · cites this paper as [39]
Microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids, particularly propionate and butyrate, are responsible for regulatory T cell differentiation or accumulation.
“three different laboratories have identified microbiota-derived SCFAs (particularly propionate and butyrate), to be responsible for Treg differentiation/accumulation [38-40].”
From Antibiotic-Induced Changes in the Intestinal Microbiota and Disease (2016) · cites this paper as [39]
These receptors play crucial roles in host-microbiota interactions and are expressed at various levels in different cell types such as IECs, innate lymphoid cells, macrophages, T cells, and dendritic cells.
“These receptors, which play crucial roles in host-microbiota interactions, are expressed at various levels in different cell types such as IECs, innate lymphoid cells, macrophages, T cells, and dendritic cells.184”
From Regulation of Intestinal Barrier Function by Microbial Metabolites (2021) · cites this paper as [184]
The pathophysiological consequences of low butyrate in critical illness are predictable (epithelial cell death and dysregulated inflammation), but the clinical consequences are unknown.
“The pathophysiological consequences of this condition are predictable (epithelial cell death and dysregulated inflammation), but the clinical consequences are unknown.”
From The microbiome and critical illness (2016) · cites this paper as [76]
Treg cells are induced by a variety of bacterial groups and by the SCFA butyrate.
“Treg cells are induced by a variety of bacterial groups67,68 and by the SCFA butyrate47, which is produced by bacterial fermentation.”
From The gut microbiota and the brain–gut–kidney axis in hypertension and chronic kidney disease (2018) · cites this paper as [47]
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“A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript comparable to the C3 levels created by HFD (Figure S2A).”
BackgroundInfluentialDiet, metabolites, and “western-lifestyle” inflammatory diseases
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- Authors
- Furusawa, Y., Obata, Y., Fukuda, S., Endo, T. A., Nakato, G., Takahashi, D., Nakanishi, Y., Uetake, C., Kato, K., Kato, T., Takahashi, M., Fukuda, N. N., Murakami, S., Miyauchi, E., Hino, S., Atarashi, K., Onawa, S., Fujimura, Y., Lockett, T., Clarke, J. M., Topping, D. L., Tomita, M., Hori, S., Ohara, O., Morita, T., Koseki, H., Kikuchi, J., Honda, K., Hase, K., & Ohno, H.
- Affiliations
- RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences (JP)
- Chiba University (JP)
- Institute for Advanced Biosciences, Keio University (JP)
- Shizuoka University (JP)
- Japan Science and Technology Agency (JP)
- Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo (JP)
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (AU)
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science (JP)
- Corresponding author
- Fukuda, Shinji
- Hase, Koji
- Ohno, Hiroshi
- ORCID
- Obata, Yuuki
- Fukuda, Shinji
- Endo, Takaho A.
- Takahashi, Daisuke
- Kato, Keiko
- Kato, Tamotsu
- Takahashi, Masumi
- Murakami, Shinnosuke
- Miyauchi, Eiji
- Hino, Shingo
- Atarashi, Koji
- Fujimura, Yumiko
- Lockett, Trevor
- Clarke, Julie M.
- Tomita, Masaru
- Hori, Shohei
- Ohara, Osamu
- Morita, Tatsuya
- Koseki, Haruhiko
- Kikuchi, Jun
- Honda, Kenya
- Hase, Koji
- Ohno, Hiroshi
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2013-11-13
- Volume
- 504
- Issue
- 7480
- Pages
- 446-450
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W1999906527
- Cited by
- 5,549
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 611 · 2025: 525 · 2024: 506 · 2023: 471 · 2022: 526 · 2021: 583 · 2020: 494 · 2019: 398 · 2018: 399 · 2017: 328 · 2016: 309 · 2015: 220 · 2014: 160 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 103.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- erratum (2014-02-12)
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (23390123, 25660101, 25293114, 24249029, 24380072, 13J05482, 24117723, 23780131, 25513012, 13J02667)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › T-cell and B-cell Immunology
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Inflammatory Bowel Disease
- Keywords
- butyrate, regulatory T cells, colitis, short-chain fatty acids, Foxp3, histone H3 acetylation, gut microbiota, commensal microorganisms, microbial metabolites, colonic mucosa, Treg differentiation, host-microbe interactions, immune homeostasis, Clostridia
- MeSH terms
- Acetylation, Animals, Butyrates, Cell Differentiation, Colitis, Colon, Female, Fermentation, Germ-Free Life, Histones, Homeostasis, Intestinal Mucosa, Male, Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy, Promoter Regions, Genetic, Symbiosis, Conserved Sequence, Lymphocyte Count, Adoptive Transfer, T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory, Mice, Forkhead Transcription Factors, Metabolome
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