Cited by 198Impact of Technology on AdolescentsSexuality, Behavior, and TechnologyGender and Technology in Education

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Internet and mobile phone text-messaging dependency: Factor structure and correlation with dysphoric mood among Japanese adults

Lu, Xi, Watanabe, Junko, Liu, Qingbo, Uji, Masayo, Shono, Masahiro, Kitamura, Toshinori·2011·Computers in Human Behavior

DOI 10.1016/j.chb.2011.02.009

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“…Lu, Zhou, & Zhao, 2011; Farb, Anderson, Block, & Segal, 2011; Huang, 2010; Kalpidou, Costin, & Morris, 2011; Katsumata, Matsumoto, Kitani, & Takeshima, 2008; Lu et al., 2011; Morrison & Gore, 2010; Primack, Swanier, Georgiopoulos, Land, & Fine, 2009; Primack et al., 2011; Van der Aa et al., 2009).”
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The measurement of Internet addiction: A critical review of existing scales and their psychometric properties
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“A 2- factor solution composed of ‘‘Maladjustment’’ and ‘‘Uncontrollability’’ has also been retrieved (Lu et al., 2011).”
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“” Marteau and Bekker (1992) reported acceptable reliability and validity for the STAI Short-Form.”
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Depression and emotion regulation predict objective smartphone use measured over one week
Elhai, J. D., Tiamiyu, M. F., Weeks, J. W., Levine, J. C., Picard, K. J., & Hall, B. J. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.04.051 · Cited by 232
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“Further complicating the issue, Lu et al. (2011) found text messaging dependence and Internet dependence to be uncorrelated with anxiety.”
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Constantly connected–The effects of smart-devices on mental health
Harwood, J., Dooley, J. J., Scott, A. J., & Joiner, R. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.02.006 · Cited by 236
Self-reported dependence on mobile phones in young adults: A European cross-cultural empirical survey
Lopez-Fernandez, O., Kuss, D. J., Romo, L., Morvan, Y., Kern, L., Graziani, P., Rousseau, A., Rumpf, H.-J., Bischof, A., Gässler, A.-K., et al. (2017) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.6.2017.020 · Cited by 237
“First, the participants were grouped into four subsamples in accordance with geographical regions delineated by the United Nations Statistics Division (United Nations, 2014): Northern Europe (NE; i.e., 12.8% of the total participants: Finland and UK), Southern Europe (SE; i.e., 14.6%: Spain and Italy), Eastern Europe…”
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Digital Media, Anxiety, and Depression in Children
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Elhai, J. D., Tiamiyu, M. F., & Weeks, J. W. (2018) · Internet Research · doi:10.1108/intr-01-2017-0019 · Cited by 233
“Because problematic smartphone use and frequency are related to younger age (Lu et al. , 2011; van Deursen et al. , 2015) and female gender (Jeong et al. , 2016; Wang et al. , 2015), we statistically adjusted for age and gender.”
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Psychosocial correlates of internet gaming disorder: Psychopathology, life satisfaction, and impulsivity
Bargeron, A. H., & Hormes, J. M. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.029 · Cited by 232
“…et al., 2014), and various activities related to the internet, including use of e-mail or text messaging, sexual preoccupations, and online social networking (Block, 2008; Chou, Condron, & Belland, 2005; Griffiths, 2001; Hormes, Kearns, & Timko, 2014; Lu et al., 2011; Young, 1999, 1998, 2004).”
Background
Proneness to Boredom Mediates Relationships Between Problematic Smartphone Use With Depression and Anxiety Severity
Elhai, J. D., Vasquez, J. K., Lustgarten, S. D., Levine, J. C., & Hall, B. J. (2017) · Social Science Computer Review · doi:10.1177/0894439317741087 · Cited by 208
“We did not find age related to PSU, despite research demonstrating higher levels of PSU by younger people (Lu et al., 2011; van Deursen et al., 2015).”
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“Other studies, which revealed no differences between women and men, focused on selected aspects of mobile phone addiction: social networking on smartphones [57] or textmessaging dependency [44].”
Background
Boredom proneness and fear of missing out mediate relations between depression and anxiety with problematic smartphone use
Wolniewicz, C. A., Rozgonjuk, D., & Elhai, J. D. (2019) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1002/hbe2.159 · Cited by 198
Distress tolerance and mindfulness mediate relations between depression and anxiety sensitivity with problematic smartphone use.
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“The mediated effect of virtues was consistent with previously reported findings (Lu et al., 2011) and confirmed our hypothesis.”
Result
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“Younger people engage inmore smartphone use compared to older people (Lu et al., 2011; van Deursen et al., 2015).”
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Adicción o abuso del teléfono móvil: revisión de la literatura
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BackgroundResult
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Background
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Background
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“Past research has found that problem smartphone use in general is predicted by younger age (Lu et al., 2011; van Deursen et al., 2015) and female gender (Jeong, Kim, Yum, & Hwang, 2016; Wang et al.”
Background
Internet addiction and child physical and mental health: Evidence from panel dataset in China.
Zhou, M., Zhu, W.-M., Sun, X., & Huang, L. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.04.115 · Cited by 85
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Hou, J., Ndasauka, Y., Jiang, Y., Ye, Z., Wang, Y., Yang, L., Li, X., Zhang, Y., Pang, L., Kong, Y., et al. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0183633 · Cited by 79
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“Age and gender were entered as covariates of problematic smartphone use in all mediation analyses based on research indicating that problematic smartphone use relates to being younger (Lu et al., 2011) and being female (Jeong, Kim, Yum, & Hwang, 2016).”
Method
Text messaging: Are dependency and Excessive Use discretely different for Japanese university students?
Lu, X., Katoh, T., Chen, Z., Nagata, T., & Kitamura, T. (2013) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.12.024 · Cited by 60
“In Japan, the increased use of text messaging has been reported to be negatively related to individuals' psychological well-being, as measured by levels of depression and anxiety (Lu et al., 2011).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Development of a Mobile Phone Addiction Craving Scale and Its Validation in a Spanish Adult Population
De-Sola, J., Flores, H. T., Rubio, G., & de Fonseca, F. R. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00090 · Cited by 67
“Furthermore, anxiety also coexists with general addictions and with cell phone addiction in particular, an aspect that is widely recognized in various studies (32, 44, 76, 77).”
Background
UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF MOTIVES IN SMARTPHONE ADDICTION
Zhang, K. Z. K., Chen, C., & Lee, M. (2014) · Journal of the Association for Information Systems · Cited by 59
Disrupted Daily Activities From Interruptive Smartphone Notifications: Relations With Depression and Anxiety Severity and the Mediating Role of Boredom Proneness
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“We included sex and age as covariates of disruption frequency because younger people (Lu et al., 2011; van Deursen et al., 2015) and women (Jeong, Kim, Yum, & Hwang, 2016; Wang, Wang, Gaskin, & Wang, 2015) engage in higher PSU severity.”
Method
Smartphone Addiction and Social Support: A Three-year Longitudinal Study
Herrero, J., Torres, A., Vivas, P., & Urueña, A. (2019) · Psychosocial Intervention · doi:10.5093/pi2019a6 · Cited by 55
“…and smartphone addiction has been empirically tested in several studies (Aker et al., 2017; Billieux, Maurage et al., 2015; Billieux, Philippot et al., 2015; Ihm, 2018; Kim, 2017, 2018; Kwon et al., 2016; Lu et al., 2011), the analysis of the evolution in time had remained largely neglected.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
A latent profile analysis of the interplay between PC and smartphone in problematic internet use
Kim, D., Nam, J. K., Oh, J., & Kang, M. C. (2015) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.11.009 · Cited by 52
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Akhtar, F., Patel, P., Heyat, M. B. B., Yousaf, S., Baig, A. A., Mohona, R. A., Mutoffar, M. M., Bhattacharya, T., Teelhawod, B. N., Li, J., et al. (2022) · CNS & Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets · doi:10.2174/1871527321666220614121439 · Cited by 50
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Yong, R. K. F., Inoue, A., & Kawakami, N. (2017) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-017-1364-5 · Cited by 47
“8% of women in the studied population were pathological Internet users [28].”
Background
Psychological Distress and Problematic Mobile Phone Use Among Adolescents: The Mediating Role of Maladaptive Cognitions and the Moderating Role of Effortful Control
Liu, R., Hong, W., Ding, Y., Oei, T. P. S., Zhen, R., Jiang, S., & Liu, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01589 · Cited by 50
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Huang, H., Wan, X., Lu, G., Ding, Y., & Chen, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.754542 · Cited by 47
Acceptance of visual and audio interventions for distracted pedestrians
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Internet Addiction: The Role of Parental Care and Mental Health in Adolescence
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“In the last decade, there has been a huge expansion of new kinds of information and communication technology, as social media, smartphones, personal computers, and other devices [3].”
Background
Smartphone addiction: psychosocial correlates, risky attitudes, and smartphone harm
Herrero, J., Urueña, A., Torres, A., & Nuchera, A. H. (2017) · Journal of Risk Research · doi:10.1080/13669877.2017.1351472 · Cited by 43
“Smartphone extensive use and addiction not only have implications for users’ psychosocial adjustment (Billieux et al. 2015; Lu et al. 2011; Wang et al. 2015) but it also affects the type of smartphone use.”
Background
Understanding, Discovering, and Mitigating Habitual Smartphone Use in Young Adults
Roffarello, A. M., & Russis, L. D. (2021) · ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1145/3447991 · Cited by 47
“A particular type of intrapersonal reward is related to the social dimension [48, 79], since users may experience a feeling of social success when communicating via their smart devices.”
Background
Problematic Pornography Use in Japan: A Preliminary Study Among University Students
Okabe, Y., Takahashi, F., & Ito, D. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.638354 · Cited by 38
Technology, Relationships and Culture: Clinical and Theoretical Implications
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“Negative psychological effects, including depression and addictive qualities, have been seen in those who play long hours of video games or as time on the Internet or mobile phones increases excessively (Angster et al. 2010; Longman et al. 2009; Lu et al. 2011; Walsh et al. 2010).”
Background
Prevalence of Smartphone Addiction in Patients with Depression and Its Association with Depression Severity: a Cross-sectional Study
Lim, P. K., Nordin, A. S. A., Yee, A. H. A., & Tan, S. B. (2020) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-019-00203-0 · Cited by 33
“Individuals with major depressive disorder are found to have poorer coping strategies, elevated levels of neuroticism (Xia et al. 2011), and text message dependency (Lu et al. 2011) which are all factors associated with smartphone addiction.”
Background
Compulsive internet use in adults: A study of prevalence and drivers within the current economic climate in the UK
Quiñones, C., & KAKABADSE, N. K. (2013) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.08.004 · Cited by 32
“More recently, Lu et al. (2011) reported prevalence around 30% in Japanese employees.”
Background
Cell Phone Use Habits Among the Spanish Population: Contribution of Applications to Problematic Use
De-Sola, J., Rubio, G., Flores, H. T., Pistoni, L., Riesen, H. V., & de Fonseca, F. R. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00883 · Cited by 34
“Specifically, the cell phone involves a problem related to anxiety around interactions that focus on instant messaging (23) and that translates into patterns of impulsive lack of control (24) with high levels of social anxiety, in which social contact without risks is sought out (25, 26).”
Background
A configurational investigation of smartphone use disorder among adolescents in three educational levels
Gao, Q., Jia, G., Fu, E., Olufadi, Y., & Huang, Y. (2019) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.106231 · Cited by 32
An Analysis of the Impact of Cell Phone Use on Depressive Symptoms among Japanese Elders
Minagawa, Y., & Saito, Y. (2014) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000363059 · Cited by 30
Smartphone Addiction and Anxiety in Adolescents – A Cross-sectional Study
Kim, K., Yee, J., Chung, J. E., Kim, H. J., Han, J. M., Kim, J. H., Lee, K. E., & Gwak, H. S. (2021) · American Journal of Health Behavior · doi:10.5993/ajhb.45.5.9 · Cited by 37
Smartphone Addiction Inventory (SPAI): Translation, adaptation and validation of the tool in Spanish adult population
Simó-Sanz, C., Ballestar‐Tarín, M. L., & Martínez‐Sabater, A. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0205389 · Cited by 31
Maladaptive Perfectionism and Internet Addiction among Chinese College Students: A Moderated Mediation Model of Depression and Gender
Yang, W., Morita, N., Zuo, Z., Kawaida, K., Ogai, Y., Saito, T., & Hu, W. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18052748 · Cited by 33
Prevalence and Risk Factors of Internet Addiction Among Employed Adults in Japan
Tsumura, H., Kanda, H., Sugaya, N., Tsuboi, S., & Takahashi, K. (2017) · Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.2188/jea.je20160185 · Cited by 29
A Research on Addictive Use of Smartphone by University Students
Ko, K.-S., Lee, M., & Kim, Y. (2012) · Journal of Digital Contents Society · doi:10.9728/dcs.2012.13.4.501 · Cited by 27
“외국 연구들로는 스마트폰과 유사한 휴대전 화 중독에 관한 연구를 찾아 볼 수 있는데, 휴대 전화의 문제적 사용과 심리적 특성(낮은 자존감, 사회적 외향성, 불안 등)과의 상관관계를 살펴본 연구[12-13], 휴대전화 중독 관련 병리적 심리증 상에 관한 연구[14-15], 성격특성과 휴대전화의 문제적 사용과의 상관관계를 살펴본 연구[16]들 이 있다.”
Association of excessive mobile phone use during pregnancy with birth weight: an adjunct study in Kumamoto of Japan Environment and Children’s Study
Lu, X., Oda, M., Ohba, T., Mitsubuchi, H., Masuda, S., & Katoh, T. (2017) · Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12199-017-0656-1 · Cited by 27
“These findings are consistent with the results of previous studies [9, 16].”
ResultSelf-citation
Relationship between family history of alcohol addiction, parents' education level, and smartphone problem use scale scores
Beison, A., & Rademacher, D. J. (2017) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.6.2017.016 · Cited by 24
“PSPU is associated with a variety of psychological constructs, such as anxiety, neuroticism, extroversion, and stress reactivity (Augner & Hacker, 2012; Bianchi & Phillips, 2005; Igarashi, Motoyoshi, Takai, & Yoshida, 2008; Lu et al., 2011; Phillips, Butt, & Blaszczynski, 2006).”
Background
The relations between smartphone use, mood, and flow experience
Marty-Dugas, J., & Smilek, D. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.109966 · Cited by 28
The psychometric properties of cellular phone dependency questionnaire in students of Isfahan
Alavi, S. S., Maracy, M. R., Jannatifard, F., Ojaghi, R., & Rezapour, H. (2014) · Journal of Education and Health Promotion · doi:10.4103/2277-9531.134822 · Cited by 25
“In some Asian countries,[21] and especially in Iran, overusing the cell phone could be due to virtual spaces.”
Background
The Effects of Parental Abuse and Neglect, and Children’s Peer Attachment, on Mobile Phone Dependency
Woo, S.-J. (2013) · Family and environment research · doi:10.6115/fer.2013.51.6.583 · Cited by 25
“로 휴대전화를 지나치게 사용하고 휴대전화의 역할에 의지하는 것 을 말한다[23].”
The reliability and validity of the 18-item long form and two short forms of the Problematic Internet Use Questionnaire in three Japanese samples
Lin, M., & Kim, Y. (2019) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.04.019 · Cited by 25
Self-concept clarity and compulsive Internet use: The role of preference for virtual interactions and employment status in British and North-American samples
Quinones, C., & Kakabadse, N. K. (2015) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.4.2015.038 · Cited by 25
Psychological factors and alcohol use in problematic mobile phone use in the Spanish population
De-Sola, J., Talledo, H., Rubio, G., & de Fonseca, F. R. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00011 · Cited by 39
“Similarly, there is a clear relationship between problematic mobile phone use and anxiety (17, 45, 47), in addition to their coexistence with insomnia and depression, as noted above (7, 9).”
Background
The Prevalence and Psychological Symptoms of Nomophobia among University Students
Kateb, S. (2017) · Journal of Research in Curriculum Instruction and Educational Technology · doi:10.21608/jrciet.2017.24454 · Cited by 26
“The dependency on virtual environments to communicate with others via the increased use of Smartphones may disable the direct social interactions among university students and other people and consequently result in static dependent behaviours or may become a mask for other problematic behaviours, sleep disturbance, p…”
Background
In WAZE we trust? GPS-based navigation application users’ behavior and patterns of dependency
Laor, T., & Galily, Y. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0276449 · Cited by 30
“Statistics point to rapid growth in the number of mobile devices in individual hands and accelerated growth in the use of text messages that obviate the need for voice calls and reduce costs of communication [10].”
Background
Does Mobile Phone Penetration Affect Divorce Rate? Evidence from China
Zhang, J., Cheng, M., Wei, X., & Gong, X. (2018) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su10103701 · Cited by 24
Factors associated with mental health among high school students in Iran: Does mobile phone overuse associate with poor mental health?
Mahmoodi, H., Nadrian, H., Shaghaghi, A., Jafarabadi, M. A., Ahmadi, A., & Saqqezi, G. S. (2018) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1111/jcap.12202 · Cited by 22
“Text messaging dependency among these age groups, especially at night may result in inadequate and irregular sleep, which consequently may increase the risk of poor mental health among the students (Lu et al., 2011).”
Background
The Self-perception of Text-message Dependency Scale (STDS): Psychometric update based on a United States sample
Liese, B. S., Benau, E. M., Atchley, P., Reed, D. D., Becirevic, A., & Kaplan, B. A. (2018) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.1080/00952990.2018.1465572 · Cited by 22
“munications cannot meet the contemporary framework for addiction, which emphasizes substantial impairment and physiological reactivity (19,20).”
Background
Risky cyber behaviors in adolescents with depression: A case control study
Uçar, H. N., Çetin, F. H., Ersoy, S. A., Güler, H. A., Kılınç, K., & Türkoğlu, S. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.03.046 · Cited by 23
Reply speed to mobile text messages among Japanese college students: When a quick reply is preferred and a late reply is acceptable
Kato, Y., & Kato, S. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.047 · Cited by 21
Unplugging Youth: Mobile Phone Addiction, Social Impact, and the Call for Digital Detox
Salepaki, A., Zerva, A., Kourkouridis, D., & Angelou, I. (2025) · Psychiatry International · doi:10.3390/psychiatryint6010004 · Cited by 24
Problematic Internet Use and Its Relationship with Psychological Distress, Insomnia, and Alcoholism Among Schoolteachers in Japan
Tsumura, H., Kanda, H., Sugaya, N., Tsuboi, S., Fukuda, M., & Takahashi, K. (2018) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2018.0233 · Cited by 18
“14, 27,28 Moreover, studies have reported that PIU is prevalent among employed adults, 29,30 although at a lower rate than that among unemployed adults.”
Self-Perception of Dependence as an Indicator of Smartphone Addiction—Establishment of a Cutoff Point in the SPAI–Spain Inventory
Ballestar‐Tarín, M. L., Simó-Sanz, C., Chover‐Sierra, E., Saus‐Ortega, C., Angulo, C. C., & Martínez‐Sabater, A. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17113838 · Cited by 21
“[15] suggest that the psychological dependence and abuse created with some of its functionalities are not something exclusive to adolescents.”
Emptiness Mediates the Association Between Pathological Narcissism and Problematic Smartphone Use
Zerach, G. (2020) · Psychiatric Quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11126-020-09803-9 · Cited by 23
“experience may be futile, as it might be associated with high levels of depression [68], one of whose symptoms is again a feeling of emptiness.”
Background
Mobile Addiction and associated factors amongst youth
Deshpande, A. (2015) · Indian Journal of Mental Health(IJMH) · doi:10.30877/ijmh.2.3.2015.244-248 · Cited by 19
“Yet another study has explored internet addiction and text messaging addiction among adults and have found that both these conditions are strongly associated with depression [15].”
Background

Authors: Lu, X., Watanabe, J., Liu, Q., Uji, M., Shono, M., & Kitamura, T.
Affiliations: Kitamura Institute of Mental Health Tokyo (Japan) (JP)
Corresponding author: Lu, Xi
ORCID: Lu, Xi
Uji, Masayo
Kitamura, Toshinori
Venue: Computers in Human Behavior
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2011-09
Volume: 27
Issue: 5
Pages: 1702-1709
ISSN: 0747-5632 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2011.02.009
OpenAlex: W2138687070
Cited by: 197
References: 38
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 10
FWCI: 38.53
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Computers in Human Behavior (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Sexuality, Behavior, and Technology
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Technology in Education
Keywords: internet addiction, factor structure, dysphoric mood, depression, anxiety, relationship maintenance, prevalence, Japanese adults

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Internet and mobile phone text-messaging dependency: Factor structure and correlation with dysphoric mood among Japanese adults

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