Depression and emotion regulation predict objective smartphone use measured over one week

Elhai, Jon D.; Tiamiyu, Mojisola F.; Weeks, Justin W.; Levine, Jason C.; Picard, Kristina J.; Hall, Brian J.

doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.04.051

Cited by 232Impact of Technology on AdolescentsMental Health Research TopicsChild Development and Digital Technology

Depression and emotion regulation predict objective smartphone use measured over one week

Elhai, Jon D., Tiamiyu, Mojisola F., Weeks, Justin W., Levine, Jason C., Picard, Kristina J., Hall, Brian J.·2018·Personality and Individual Differences

DOI 10.1016/j.paid.2017.04.051

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People with deficits in emotion regulation are more likely to have increased time on PSU and negative psychological health outcomes.
“Early studies have supported that people with defect in emotion regulation are more likely to have the increasing time on PSU [12] and the negative psychological health outcomes (e.g., stress, anxiety, etc.) [2,13].”
From Comparative effectiveness of mind-body exercise versus cognitive behavioral therapy for college students with problematic smartphone use: A randomized controlled trial (2020) · cites this paper as [12]
Smartphone use is habitual and generally time invariant and thereby does not significantly change in accordance with life events.
“However, this is less likely since the ligature suggests that smartphone use is habitual and generally time invariant [67,68] and thereby does not significantly change in accordance with life events.”
From Effects of Social Media and Smartphone Use on Body Esteem in Female Adolescents: Testing a Cognitive and Affective Model (2020) · cites this paper as [67]

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“Moreover, while the recording accuracy of some tracking tools has been validated against external timers, prospective loggers or manual recordings 45,84 , more research is needed to understand the accuracy of these tools, especially those developed by third parties for general usage.”
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“…as: Wolniewicz, C.A., Psychiatry Research (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.09.058 While extensive research finds associations between PSU and depression and anxiety (reviewed in Elhai et al., 2017a), little consistent support has been found for other mental health variables.”
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“We also included FoMO as a mediating variable, positively related to depression and social anxiety, and inversely related to life satisfaction (Oberst et al., 2017; Przybylski et al., 2013; Wolniewicz, Tiamiyu, Weeks, & Elhai, 2018).”
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“…show little or no effect (Coyne, Rogers, Zurcher, Stockdale, & Booth, 2020; Ferguson, 2019; Ferguson & Wang, 2019; Heffer et al., 2019; Hilgard, Engelhardt, & Rouder, 2017; Jensen, George, Russell, & Odgers, 2019; Orben, Dienlin, & Przybylski, 2019; Rozgonjuk, Levine, Hall, & Elhai et al., 2018).”
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Elhai, J. D., Levine, J. C., O’Brien, K. D., & Armour, C. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.03.026 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Social Media Use in Lectures Mediates the Relationship between Procrastination and Problematic Smartphone Use
Rozgonjuk, D., Kattago, M., & Täht, K. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.08.003 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Family environment and problematic internet use among adolescents: The mediating roles of depression and Fear of Missing Out
Sela, Y., Zach, M., Amichai‐Hamburger, Y., Mishali, M., & Omer, H. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.106226 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
The influence of depressive symptoms and fear of missing out on severity of problematic smartphone use and Internet gaming disorder among Chinese young adults: A three-wave mediation model
Yuan, G. F., Elhai, J. D., & Hall, B. J. (2020) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106648 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
How psychosocial well-being and usage amount predict inaccuracies in retrospective estimates of digital technology use
Sewall, C. J. R., Bear, T. M., Merranko, J., & Rosen, D. (2020) · Mobile Media & Communication · doi:10.1177/2050157920902830 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
“For instance, Elhai et al. (2018) and Andrews, Ellis, Shaw, and Piwek (2015) found that their samples of college students used their phones for an average of 4 and 5 hours per day, respectively.”
Background
Fear of missing out is associated with disrupted activities from receiving smartphone notifications and surface learning in college students
Rozgonjuk, D., Elhai, J. D., Ryan, T., & Scott, G. G. (2019) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.05.016 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
The serially mediated relationship between emerging adults’ social media use and mental well-being
Rasmussen, E. E., Punyanunt-Carter, N. M., LaFreniere, J. R., Norman, M. S., & Kimball, T. G. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.08.019 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Passive objective measures in the assessment of problematic smartphone use: A systematic review
Ryding, C., & Kuss, D. J. (2020) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2020.100257 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“In terms of length of time used to assess smartphone use, time periods ranged between seven days (Elhai et al., 2018; Prasad et al., 2018; Rozgonjuk, Levine, Hall, & Elhai, 2018) to a year (Tossell et al., 2015) to collect objective data.”
Background
Examining latent classes of smartphone users: Relations with psychopathology and problematic smartphone use
Elhai, J. D., & Contractor, A. A. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.01.010 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“Such integrated models of demographics, psychopathology, smartphone use frequency and problematic use have been tested and supported in recent papers (Elhai et al., 2017c; Elhai, Tiamiyu, & Weeks, in press; J. Kim et al., 2015; J.-H. Kim, 2017; van Deursen et al., 2015).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citation
Problematic Smartphone Use, Deep and Surface Approaches to Learning, and Social Media Use in Lectures
Rozgonjuk, D., Saal, K., & Täht, K. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph15010092 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Emotion regulation in relation to smartphone use: Process smartphone use mediates the association between expressive suppression and problematic smartphone use
Rozgonjuk, D., & Elhai, J. D. (2019) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-019-00271-4 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
The role of maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies and social anxiety in problematic smartphone and social media use
Zsido, A. N., Arató, N., Láng, A., Lábadi, B., Pakai-Stecina, D. T., & Bandi, S. A. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.110647 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Non-social smartphone use mediates the relationship between intolerance of uncertainty and problematic smartphone use: Evidence from a repeated-measures study
Rozgonjuk, D., Elhai, J. D., Täht, K., Vassil, K., Levine, J. C., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.02.013 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Worry and anger are associated with latent classes of problematic smartphone use severity among college students
Elhai, J. D., Rozgonjuk, D., Yildirim, C., AlGhraibeh, A. M. A., & Alafnan, A. A. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.12.047 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
A new agenda for personality psychology in the digital age?
Montag, C., & Elhai, J. D. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.03.045 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
The association between the Big Five personality traits and smartphone use disorder: A meta-analysis
Marengo, D., Sindermann, C., Häckel, D., Settanni, M., Elhai, J. D., & Montag, C. (2020) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2020.00069 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“Other researchers use the term problematic smartphone use (Elhai et al., 2018; Wang, Wang, Gaskin, & Wang, 2015), but this term is also not optimal, because it is not clear whether the “problematic” aspect of problematic smartphone use represents the end-point of excessive use, or the transition…”
Background
Cognitive- and Emotion-Related Dysfunctional Coping Processes: Transdiagnostic Mechanisms Explaining Depression and Anxiety’s Relations with Problematic Smartphone Use
Elhai, J. D., Yang, H., & Montag, C. (2019) · Current Addiction Reports · doi:10.1007/s40429-019-00260-4 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Self-citation
Psychological Distress, Emotion Dysregulation, and Coping Behaviour: a Theoretical Perspective of Problematic Smartphone Use
Squires, L. R., Hollett, K. B., Hesson, J., & Harris, N. (2020) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-020-00224-0 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“Self-report studies suggest that problematic smartphone use severity is associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety (for reviews, see Elhai et al. 2017, 2019a; Vahedi and Saiphoo 2018), loneliness (Bian and Leung 2015; Mahapatra 2019; Darcin et al. 2016), low social support (Herrero et al.…”
BackgroundInfluential
The role of cognitive emotion regulation strategies on problematic smartphone use: comparison between problematic and non-problematic adolescent users.
Extremera, N., Quintana-Orts, C., Sánchez-Álvarez, N., & Rey, L. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16173142 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“Drawing on the theory of the regulation of emotions [23], it is proposed that problematic smartphone users may deal with negative emotion by using their smartphones, as a maladaptive coping strategy related to avoidance and the inhibition of their negative emotion, instead of using adaptive coping strategies such as s…”
Background
Stress and Problematic Smartphone Use Severity: Smartphone Use Frequency and Fear of Missing Out as Mediators
Yang, H., Liu, B., & Fang, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.659288 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“(34) found that FOMO is closely related to negative emotions, social use of smartphones, and PSU severity.”
Background
Comparing Smartphone, WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat: Which Platform Elicits the Greatest Use Disorder Symptoms?
Rozgonjuk, D., Sindermann, C., Elhai, J. D., & Montag, C. (2020) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2020.0156 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Smartphone Restriction and Its Effect on Subjective Withdrawal Related Scores
Flaa, T. A., Aarestad, S. H., Andreassen, C. S., Bilder, R. M., & Pallesen, S. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01444 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Association between high adolescent smartphone use and academic impairment, conflicts with family members or friends, and suicide attempts
Kim, M.-H., Min, S., Ahn, J.-S., An, C., & Lee, J. (2019) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0219831 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Digital phenotyping in psychological and medical sciences: a reflection about necessary prerequisites to reduce harm and increase benefits
Montag, C., Sindermann, C., & Baumeister, H. (2020) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.03.013 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Sensing Apps and Public Data Sets for Digital Phenotyping of Mental Health: Systematic Review
Mendes, J. P. M., de Moura, I. R., van de Ven, P. W. J., Viana, D., Silva, F., Coutinho, L., Teixeira, S. S., Rodrigues, J. J. P. C., & Teles, A. S. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/28735 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“…of body when sleeping Inertial and ambient SleepGuard [46] Mental state classification It does not infer information Virtual Moment [47] Mental state classification It does not infer information Virtual TypeOfMood [48] Raw data collection It does not infer information Positioning,…”
Background
Effects of Social Media and Smartphone Use on Body Esteem in Female Adolescents: Testing a Cognitive and Affective Model
Yang, H., Wang, J. J., Tng, G. Y. Q., & Yang, S. (2020) · Children · doi:10.3390/children7090148 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“However, this is less likely since the ligature suggests that smartphone use is habitual and generally time invariant [67,68] and thereby does not significantly change in accordance with life events.”
Background
Can emotion regulation difficulty lead to adolescent problematic smartphone use? A moderated mediation model of depression and perceived social support
Fu, L., Wang, P., Zhao, M., Xie, X., Chen, Y., Nie, J., & Lei, L. (2019) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104660 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
The Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale Validity in a Romanian Sample Using Item Response Theory and Network Analysis
Stănculescu, E. (2022) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-021-00732-7 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“, 2020), and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies (Elhai et al., 2018).”
Background
Do pop-up notifications regarding smartphone use decrease screen time, phone checking behavior, and self-reported problematic smartphone use? Evidence from a two-month experimental study
Loid, K., Täht, K., & Rozgonjuk, D. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.08.007 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Affective State Recognition in Livestock—Artificial Intelligence Approaches
Neethirajan, S. R. (2022) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani12060759 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“The best features selected from the AI models can be used to train ML models, such as the random forest regressor [112,153], which will simulate potential future behavioural and emotional scenarios.”
Method
How much do parents actually use their smartphones? Pilot study comparing self-report to passive sensing
Yuan, N., Weeks, H. M., Ball, R., Newman, M., Chang, Y.-J., & Radesky, J. S. (2019) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/s41390-019-0452-2 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Emotion Regulation Difficulties, Personality, and Problematic Smartphone Use
Horwood, S., & Anglim, J. (2021) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2020.0328 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“6,9,38 Elhai and Contractor 39 found that increased use of cognitive reappraisal was indirectly associated with increased problematic use.”
Problematic smartphone use relationship with pathological personality traits: Systematic review and meta-analysis
Carvalho, L. D. F., Sette, C. P., & Ferrari, B. (2018) · Cyberpsychology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2018-3-5 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“There are theoretical framework trying to explain the associations between PSU and psychopathology, for instance, the Compensatory Internet Use Theory (CIUT; Kardefelt-Winther, 2014) provides explanation on variables that drive PSU behaviors, focusing on negative events and stressors that can motivate people to use an…”
Background
Concept, Possibilities and Pilot-Testing of a New Smartphone Application for the Social and Life Sciences to Study Human Behavior Including Validation Data from Personality Psychology
Montag, C., Baumeister, H., Kannen, C., Sariyska, R., Meßner, E.-M., & Brand, M. (2019) · J — Multidisciplinary Scientific Journal · doi:10.3390/j2020008 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
The relationship between mobile learning and self-regulated learning: A systematic review
Palalas, A., & Wark, N. (2020) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.5650 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“Other questionnaires were used in single studies, for instance, Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) (Elhai et al., 2018) and Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) (Lee, 2013).”
Method
Examining the relationship between fear of COVID-19, intolerance for uncertainty, and cyberloafing: A mediational model
Reizer, A., Galperin, B. L., Chavan, M., Behl, A., & Pereira, V. E. (2022) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.03.037 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“…that this compensatory and regulatory mechanism is not pathological in itself, but it may result in excessive internet usage (Elhai et al., 2018) and even problematic engagement in digital technology use in some individuals (Elhai et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2015; ZhitomirskyGeffet & Blau, 2016).”
Background
Does Objectively Measured Social-Media or Smartphone Use Predict Depression, Anxiety, or Social Isolation Among Young Adults?
Sewall, C. J. R., Goldstein, T. R., Wright, A. G. C., & Rosen, D. (2022) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026221078309 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“Furthermore, although some usage-tracking applications have been externally validated (Elhai et al., 2018; Geyer et al., 2021), we are not aware of any published validations of the Screen Time application in the academic literature—making this an important avenue for future research.”
Background
Smartphone Use Associated with Refractive Error in Teenagers
Enthoven, C. A., Polling, J. R., Verzijden, T., Tideman, J. W. L., Al-Jaffar, N., Jansen, P. W., Raat, H., Metz, L., Verhoeven, V. J. M., & Klaver, C. C. W. (2021) · Ophthalmology · doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2021.06.016 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Examining the psychometric properties of the Smartphone Addiction Scale and its short version for use with emerging adults in the U.S
Harris, B., McCredie, M., & Fields, S. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2020.100011 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
The Relation Between College Students’ Social Anxiety and Mobile Phone Addiction: The Mediating Role of Regulatory Emotional Self-Efficacy and Subjective Well-Being
Xiao, Z., & Huang, J.-H. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.861527 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Adolescents’ smartphone use at night, sleep disturbance and depressive symptoms
Dewi, R. K., Efendi, F., Has, E. M. M., & Gunawan, J. (2018) · International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health · doi:10.1515/ijamh-2018-0095 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
The relationship between short-form video use and depression among Chinese adolescents: Examining the mediating roles of need gratification and short-form video addiction
Zhu, C., Jiang, Y., Lei, H., Wang, H., & Zhang, C. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30346 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Short-form video addiction might play an important mediating role, and many previous studies have proven the positive association between internet-related addictive behaviors and mental health problems [25,26].”
Result
The relationships between negative emotions and latent classes of smartphone addiction
Yue, H., Zhang, X., Sun, J., Liu, M., Li, C., & Bao, H. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0248555 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“Smartphones are widely used across the world and have been an indispensable part of our daily life [1, 2].”
Background
The association between problematic social networking site use, dark triad traits, and emotion dysregulation
Hussain, Z., Wegmann, E., & Griffiths, M. D. (2021) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-021-00668-6 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Smartphone Addiction and Social Support: A Three-year Longitudinal Study
Herrero, J., Torres, A., Vivas, P., & Urueña, A. (2019) · Psychosocial Intervention · doi:10.5093/pi2019a6 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“The problematic use does not necessarily imply addictive behavior, although it poses a risk to users (Elhai, Dvorak, Levine, & Hall, 2017; Elhai et al., 2018; Panova & Carbonel, 2018).”
Background
Problematic smartphone use has detrimental effects on mental health and somatic symptoms in a heterogeneous sample of German adults
Winkler, A., Jeromin, F., Doering, B. K., & Barke, A. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106500 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Digital Phenotyping and Feature Extraction on Smartphone Data for Depression Detection
Yang, M., Ngai, E. C. ‐., Hu, X., Hu, B., Liu, J., Erol Gelenbe, A., & Leung, V. C. M. (2024) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/jproc.2025.3542324 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“…[29], mind-LAMP [54], Behavidence [55], Passive Data Kit [56], The Carat app [57], Delphi [58], MovisensXS [59], Callistics and StayFree [60], DataCollector [61], Jouw Leefomgev-ing [62], Studentlife [63], Moment [64], Purple Robot [65], iHOPE [66], LifeRhythm [67], MoodTraces [25], and Fine [68].”
The Relationship between Emotion Regulation (ER) and Problematic Smartphone Use (PSU): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses
Shahidin, S. H., Midin, M., Sidi, H., Choy, C. L., Jaafar, N. R. N., Sahimi, H. M. S., & Roos, N. A. C. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192315848 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Problematic smartphone use and mental health problems: current state of research and future directions
Elhai, J. D. (2019) · Dusunen Adam The Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences · doi:10.14744/dajpns.2019.00001 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Such measurement can also be used to assess objective phone use by participants over time (29,30).”
BackgroundMethod
Mobile phone dependency and sleep quality in college students during COVID-19 outbreak: the mediating role of bedtime procrastination and fear of missing out
Huang, T., Liu, Y., Tan, T. C., Wang, D., Zheng, K., & Liu, W. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-16061-4 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“Similarly, interventions that address FOMO and promote healthier patterns of mobile phone use may help reduce the negative impact of mobile phone use on sleep quality [44].”
BackgroundResult
Objectively‐measured and self‐reported smartphone use in relation to surface learning, procrastination, academic productivity, and psychopathology symptoms in college students
Elhai, J. D., Sapci, O., Yang, H., Amialchuk, A., Rozgonjuk, D., & Montag, C. (2021) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1002/hbe2.254 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Association between mobile phone screen time and depressive symptoms among college students: A threshold effect
Rosenthal, S. R., Zhou, J., & Booth, S. T. (2021) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1002/hbe2.256 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Comparative effectiveness of mind-body exercise versus cognitive behavioral therapy for college students with problematic smartphone use: A randomized controlled trial
Lu, C., Zou, L., Becker, B., D. Griffiths, M., Yu, Q., Chen, S.-T., Demetrovics, Z., Jiao, C., Chi, X., Chen, A., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Mental Health Promotion · doi:10.32604/ijmhp.2020.014419 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Early studies have supported that people with defect in emotion regulation are more likely to have the increasing time on PSU [12] and the negative psychological health outcomes (e.”
Background
Anhedonia, screen time, and substance use in early adolescents: A longitudinal mediation analysis
Christodoulou, G., Majmundar, A., Chou, C., & Pentz, M. A. (2019) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.11.007 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“In general boys have the propensity to suppress their negative affective states and thus may spend more time watching television as an attempt to manage their emotions versus alternative strategies, such as seeking support from their peers (Elhai et al., 2018).”
Background
The relationship between basic psychological needs and phubbing: Fear of missing out as the mediator
Butt, A. K., & Arshad, T. (2021) · PsyCh Journal · doi:10.1002/pchj.483 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
True colors: Grayscale setting reduces screen time in college students
Holte, A. J., & Ferraro, F. R. (2023) · The Social Science Journal · doi:10.1080/03623319.2020.1737461 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Effects of a 14-day social media abstinence on mental health and well-being: results from an experimental study
de Hesselle, L. C., & Montag, C. (2024) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-024-01611-1 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“…of smartphone use (screentime, screen unlocks) and found either no association between depression and screentime [27] or an inverse relationship between depression and number of screen unlocks, [27, 35] indicating even a lower unlock frequency for depressed compared to non-depressed individuals.”
Result
Using Structural Equation Modeling to Examine Pathways between Physical Activity and Sleep Quality among Chinese TikTok Users
Zhang, X., Feng, S., Peng, R., & Li, H. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19095142 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“For these reasons, some studies have treated depression and anxiety as predictors of smartphone use [41,42].”
Background
Predicting perinatal health outcomes using smartphone-based digital phenotyping and machine learning in a prospective Swedish cohort (Mom2B): study protocol
Bilal, A.-M., Fransson, E., Bränn, E., Eriksson, A., Zhong, M., Gidén, K., Elofsson, U. O. E., Axfors, C., Skalkidou, A., & Papadopoulos, F. C. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-059033 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
The effect of smartphones on anxiety: An attachment issue or fear of missing out?
Mannion, K. H., & Nolan, S. A. (2020) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2020.1869378 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“…the frequency of smartphone use has been linked to negative mental health outcomes in university students, such as depression (Demirci et al., 2015; Elhai et al., 2018; Panova & Lleras, 2016), smartphone addiction (Dalbudak et al., 2013; Darcin et al., 2016; García-Oliva & Piqueras, 2016; King et…”
Background
Prevalence of Smartphone Addiction in Patients with Depression and Its Association with Depression Severity: a Cross-sectional Study
Lim, P. K., Nordin, A. S. A., Yee, A. H. A., & Tan, S. B. (2020) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-019-00203-0 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
How do depression, duration of internet use and social connection in adolescence influence each other over time? An extension of the RI-CLPM including contextual factors
Marciano, L., Schulz, P. J., & Camerini, A.-L. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107390 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
K-EmoPhone: A Mobile and Wearable Dataset with In-Situ Emotion, Stress, and Attention Labels
Kang, S., Choi, W., Park, C. Y., Cha, N., Kim, A., Khandoker, A. H., Hadjileontiadis, L. J., Kim, H., Jeong, Y., & Lee, U. (2023) · Scientific Data · doi:10.1038/s41597-023-02248-2 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“We expect the K-EmoPhone dataset to help build machine learning models that predict mental well-being and productivity, such as emotion cognition 7,60 and stress detection 21 .”
Method
The Internet addiction test: Psychometric properties, socio-demographic risk factors and addictive co-morbidities in a large adult sample
Sela, Y., Bar‐Or, R. L., Kor, A., & Lev‐Ran, S. (2021) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.107023 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Nighttime smartphone use and changes in mental health and wellbeing among young adults: a longitudinal study based on high-resolution tracking data
Dissing, A. S., Andersen, T. O., Jensen, A. K., Lund, R., & Rod, N. H. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-10116-z · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Emotion dysregulation factors associated with problematic smartphone use severity: The mediating role of fear of missing out
Arrivillaga, C., Hallauer, C. J., Montag, C., & Elhai, J. D. (2023) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107708 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Excessive reassurance seeking mediates relations between rumination and problematic smartphone use
Elhai, J. D., Rozgonjuk, D., Alghraibeh, A. M., Levine, J. C., Alafnan, A. A., Aldraiweesh, A. A., Aljomaa, S. S., & Hall, B. J. (2020) · Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic · doi:10.1521/bumc_2020_84_07 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Use of smartphone sensor data in detecting and predicting depression and anxiety in young people (12–25 years): A scoping review
Beames, J. R., Han, J., Shvetcov, A., Zheng, W. Y., Slade, A., Dabash, O., Rosenberg, J., O’Dea, B., Kasthurirathne, S. N., Hoon, L., et al. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35472 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“One study found that higher baseline severity was associated with decreased phone use over the one week monitoring period [53].”
Emotional and Behavioural Factors Predisposing to Internet Addiction: The Smartphone Distraction among Italian High School Students
Benedetto, L., Rollo, S., Cafeo, A., Rosa, G. D., Pino, R., Gagliano, A., Germanò, E., & Ingrassia, M. (2024) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph21040386 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Insecure Attachment Styles and Unbalanced Family Functioning as Risk Factors of Problematic Smartphone Use in Spanish Young Adults: A Relative Weight Analysis
Mangialavori, S., Russo, C., Jiménez, M. V. J., Ricarte, J. J., D’Urso, G., Barni, D., & Cacioppo, M. (2021) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe11030075 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Other individual risk factors associated with PSU were emotional dysregulation [15], self-dysregulation [16], low selfcontrol [17], and behavioral inhibition [18].”
Background
A bibliometric analysis of peer-reviewed literature on smartphone addiction and future research agenda
Khan, N. F., & Khan, M. N. (2021) · Asia-Pacific Journal of Business Administration · doi:10.1108/apjba-09-2021-0430 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
How smartphone use becomes problematic: Application of the ALT-SR model to study the predicting role of personality traits
Marciano, L., Schulz, P. J., & Camerini, A.-L. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.106731 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Adolescent resilience and mobile phone addiction in Henan Province of China: Impacts of chain mediating, coping style
Ma, A., Yang, Y. M., Guo, S., Li, X., Zhang, S., & Chang, H. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0278182 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Many studies have indicated a relationship between depression, anxiety, and loneliness with smartphone usage [54, 55].”
Background
Plurality in the Measurement of Social Media Use and Mental Health: An Exploratory Study Among Adolescents and Young Adults
Petalas, D. P., Konijn, E., Johnson, B. K., Veldhuis, J., de Vaate, N. A. J. D. B., Burgers, C., Droog, E., Miedzobrodzka, E., Bálint, K., & van de Schoot, R. (2021) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/20563051211035353 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“By contrast, a smaller number of investigations have scrutinized monotonic relationships between SMU and MH and have considered quadratic relations as well (Elhai, Tiamiyu, et al., 2018; Kim & Lee, 2011; Pittman & Reich, 2016; Przybylski & Weinstein, 2017; Weinstein, 2018).”
Differential Effects of Short- and Long-Term Negative Affect on Smartphone Usage: The Moderating Role of Locus of Control
Chu, Y., Li, J., Liu, S., Liu, Y., & Xu, J. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15081121 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Thus far, most studies supporting CIUT have employed cross-sectional designs (Elhai et al., 2018; Elhai & Contractor, 2018), concentrating on the perspective of individual differences by measuring psychological distress (such as depression, anxiety, and stress).”
The relations between smartphone use, mood, and flow experience
Marty-Dugas, J., & Smilek, D. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.109966 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Emotion regulation, e‐learning readiness, technology usage status, in‐class smartphone cyberloafing, and smartphone addiction in the time of COVID ‐19 pandemic
Gökçearslan, Ş., Durak, H. Y., & Eşiyok, E. (2023) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12785 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Keep on scrolling? Using intensive longitudinal smartphone sensing data to assess how everyday smartphone usage behaviors are related to well-being
Deters, F. G., & Schoedel, R. (2023) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2023.107977 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Color me calm: Grayscale phone setting reduces anxiety and problematic smartphone use
Holte, A. J., Giesen, D. T., & Ferraro, F. R. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02020-y · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Internet-use disorders: A theoretical framework for their conceptualization and diagnosis
Wegmann, E., Billieux, J., & Brand, M. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822201-0.00022-8 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Mindfulness mediates relations between anxiety with problematic smartphone use severity
Hallauer, C., Rooney, E. A., Billieux, J., Hall, B. J., & Elhai, J. (2022) · Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2022-1-4 · Cited by 16 · see citing works

Perspectives on relaxation and meditation
Silva, P. D. (1995) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(95)90164-7 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The association between problematic smartphone use, depression and anxiety symptom severity, and objectively measured smartphone use over one week
Rozgonjuk, D., Levine, J. C., Hall, B. J., & Elhai, J. D. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.019 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
Personality, psychopathology, marital interaction patterns and self-esteem in relation to infertility
Edelmann, R. J., Connolly, K., & Robson, J. (1988) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(88)90012-8 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Emotion regulation in relation to smartphone use: Process smartphone use mediates the association between expressive suppression and problematic smartphone use
Rozgonjuk, D., & Elhai, J. D. (2022) · Key topics in behavioral sciences · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-19930-1_2 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Problematic smartphone use: behavioral, psychopathological, dispositional, and educational correlates
Rozgonjuk, D. (2019) · DSpace repository (University of Tartu) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.16879.79522 · Cited by 8 · see citing works

Authors: Elhai, J. D., Tiamiyu, M. F., Weeks, J. W., Levine, J. C., Picard, K. J., & Hall, B. J.
Affiliations: University of Toledo (US)
Nebraska Medical Center (US)
Johns Hopkins University (US)
Corresponding author: Hall, Brian J.
ORCID: Elhai, Jon D.
Weeks, Justin W.
Levine, Jason C.
Hall, Brian J.
Venue: Personality and Individual Differences
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2018-10
Volume: 133
Pages: 21-28
ISSN: 0191-8869 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2017.04.051
OpenAlex: W2608175373
Cited by: 232
References: 70
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 48 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 2
FWCI: 71.44
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Personality and Individual Differences (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
Keywords: smartphone use, depression, emotion regulation, expressive suppression, psychopathology, university students

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