Online social support as a buffer against online and offline peer and sexual victimization among U.S. LGBT and non-LGBT youth
Open accessAbstract
In today's technology-infused world, we need to better understand relationships youth form with friends online, how they compare to relationships formed in-person, and whether these online relationships confer protective benefits. This is particularly important from the perspective of peer victimization, given that social support in-person appears to reduce the odds of victimization in-person. To address this literature gap, data from a sample of 5,542 U.S. adolescents, collected online between August 2010 and January 2011, were analyzed. The main variables of interest were: online and in-person peer victimization (including generalized and bullying forms) and online and in-person sexual victimization (including generalized and sexual harassment forms). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youth were more likely than non-LGBT youth to have online friends and to appraise these friends as better than their in-person friends at providing emotional support. Peer victimization and unwanted sexual experiences were more commonly reported by LGBT than non-LGBT youth. Perceived quality of social support, either online or in-person, did little to attenuate the relative odds of victimization for LGBT youth. For all youth, in-person social support was associated with reduced odds of bully victimization (online and in-person) and sexual harassment (in-person), but was unrelated to the other outcomes of interest. Online social support did not reduce the odds of any type of victimization assessed. Together, these findings suggest that online friends can be an important source of social support, particularly for LGBT youth. Nonetheless, in-person social support appears to be more protective against victimization, suggesting that one is not a replacement for the other.
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Online communities can provide TGD individuals with access to social support and connection with peers, reducing social isolation.
“Conversely, online communities can provide TGD individuals with access to social support and connection with their peers that they might not otherwise have, reducing social isolation [27,28].”
From A Phenomenological Investigation into Cyberbullying as Experienced by People Identifying as Transgender or Gender Diverse (2022) · cites this paper as [28]
The Introduction says online relationships may be important for LGBT youth who lack in-person support, and the Results report that gender-minority youth had more online friends than cisgender youth (page numbers unavailable). The Conclusion describes online friends as a key source of support for some LGBT youth aged 13–18, but the paper does not establish that online communities reduce social isolation among TGD individuals generally. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOnline TGD spaces can facilitate a sense of community for TGD individuals who might otherwise be isolated from the wider TGD community.
“Online TGD spaces can facilitate a sense of community for TGD individuals who might otherwise be isolated from the wider TGD community”
From A Phenomenological Investigation into Cyberbullying as Experienced by People Identifying as Transgender or Gender Diverse (2022) · cites this paper as [28]
The Introduction says online connections to similar others may be especially important for LGBT youth who face in-person marginalization. The Results report that gender-minority youth had more online friends than cisgender youth. The paper does not establish that these were TGD-specific spaces or that the friendships connected isolated youth to a wider TGD community; its findings also concern youth rather than TGD individuals generally. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredFor TGD individuals, social support is a vitally important source of resilience and a protective factor against the effects of victimization.
“For TGD individuals, social support is a vitally important source of resilience and a protective factor against the effects of victimization [12,25,28].”
From A Phenomenological Investigation into Cyberbullying as Experienced by People Identifying as Transgender or Gender Diverse (2022) · cites this paper as [28]
The Introduction describes online support as potentially important for LGBT youth, and the Results report that in-person peer support was associated with lower odds of bullying and in-person sexual harassment. But the Results also say support did little to attenuate LGBT youths’ elevated odds of victimization. The paper does not establish protection against the effects of victimization specifically for transgender and gender-diverse individuals; it measures associations with victimization risk, not its aftermath. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMany TGD individuals rely on online friendships and communities as their primary form of social support.
“Many TGD individuals rely on online friendships and communities as their primary form of social support [12,28].”
From A Phenomenological Investigation into Cyberbullying as Experienced by People Identifying as Transgender or Gender Diverse (2022) · cites this paper as [28]
The Conclusion (page unavailable) says a sizeable portion of youth, particularly LGBT youth, describe online friends as a key source of support. But it does not say online support is the primary form of support for many transgender and gender-diverse (TGD) individuals. The Results (page unavailable) found no gender-identity difference in ratings of online versus in-person friends’ support. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSocial support is vital for coping with victimization, and the importance of social support as a protective factor for TGD individuals is consistent with previous research.
“The importance of social support as a protective factor for TGD individuals is consistent with previous research that social support is vital for coping with victimization [28].”
From A Phenomenological Investigation into Cyberbullying as Experienced by People Identifying as Transgender or Gender Diverse (2022) · cites this paper as [28]
The Discussion (page unavailable) reports that in-person peer support was associated with reduced odds of some forms of victimization, supporting a limited protective role. But the Results and Discussion say peer support did little to attenuate victimization odds for LGBT youth overall, and online support did not reduce risk; the paper does not establish that support is vital for coping with victimization among TGD individuals. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Online TGD spaces are often the first point of contact for TGD individuals beginning to challenge or explore their gender identity.
“these spaces are often the first point of contact for TGD individuals beginning to challenge or explore their gender identity [12,27,28].”
From A Phenomenological Investigation into Cyberbullying as Experienced by People Identifying as Transgender or Gender Diverse (2022) · cites this paper as [28]
The Introduction describes online spaces as sources of support for LGBT youth, and the Discussion says online friendships can be especially supportive. Neither passage says that online TGD spaces are often a first point of contact for people exploring their gender identity; searches for first contact and gender-identity exploration found no such passage. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.72)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDiscrimination is an important risk factor for sexually connoted behaviors.
“discrimination is indeed an important risk factor for sexually connoted behaviors [55,56].”
From Cybervictimization and Online Sexual Harassment: Prevalence, Association, and Predictors (2024) · cites this paper as [56]
The Results section reports that sexual victimization and harassment differ by sexual and gender identity, but it does not identify discrimination as a risk factor. A search for “discrimination” found it only in a reference title, not in a finding about sexually connoted behaviors; the Methods measure unwanted sexual experiences rather than that broader outcome. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.75)
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- Authors
- Ybarra, M. L., Mitchell, K. J., Palmer, N. A., & Reisner, S. L.
- Affiliations
- Center for Innovative Public Health Research (US)
- University of New Hampshire (US)
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Ybarra, Michele L.
- Venue
- Child Abuse & Neglect
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-01
- Volume
- 39
- Pages
- 123-136
- ISSN
- 0145-2134 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6483382
- OpenAlex
- W2111500167
- Cited by
- 287
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 18.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Child Abuse & Neglect (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD057191)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › LGBTQ Health, Identity, and Policy
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Keywords
- online social support, peer victimization, sexual victimization, sexual harassment, bullying, LGBTQ youth, adolescents, online friends, emotional support, protective factors
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Bisexuality, Cross-Sectional Studies, Depression, Female, Homosexuality, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Peer Group, Surveys and Questionnaires, Sex Offenses, Social Support, Transsexualism, United States, Logistic Models, Sexual Harassment, Crime Victims, Internet, Bullying
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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