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Prefrontal control of fear: more than just extinction
Open accessAbstract
Although fear research has largely focused on the amygdala, recent findings highlight cortical control of the amygdala in the service of fear regulation. In rodent models, it is becoming well established that the infralimbic (IL) prefrontal cortex plays a key role in extinction learning, and recent findings are uncovering molecular mechanisms involved in extinction-related plasticity. Furthermore, mounting evidence implicates the prelimbic (PL) prefrontal cortex in the production of fear responses. Both IL and PL integrate inputs from the amygdala, as well as other structures to gate the expression of fear via projections to inhibitory or excitatory circuits within the amygdala. We suggest that dual control of the amygdala by separate prefrontal modules increases the flexibility of an organism's response to danger cues.
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“For example, PL stimulation impairs fear extinction, and PL activity after extinction predicts reduced extinction recall [87], whereas IL activity has the opposite effects [87].”
From Ventromedial prefrontal–subcortical systems and the generation of affective meaning (2012) · cites this paper as [87]
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“…demonstrated that the vmPFC is necessary for recall of past extinction learning, however the vmPFC also plays a role in extinction learning itself (Sotres-Bayon & Quirk, 2010), with human neuroimaging studies frequently finding activation during both extinction learning and recall (Etkin, Egner,…”
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“Lastly, inactivation of the amygdala [BLA, lateral amygdala (LA), central amygdala (CeA)] disrupts extinction on PND17 but not on PND24 (Kim and Richardson, 2008), suggesting that extinction becomes more dependent on the mPFC once reciprocal connections between the BLA and mPFC are established (Kim and Richardson, 200…”
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“Both the prelimbic and infralimbic regions of medial PFC have been shown to contribute to the regulation of fear responses through their projections to the basal and intercalated cell groups of the amygdala (5).”
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“Accumulating evidence suggests that direct glutamatergic projections from the BLA to the CeA are important for fear expression whereas activation of ITC neurons that inhibit CeA output neurons might account for the reduction of fear expression after extinction [2,35,50,51].”
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“[73] Evidence suggests that successful response to CBT may arise through alterations in amygdala–vmPFC connectivity, given the role of this circuitry in the maintenance of extinction.[5, 10, 23].”
BackgroundResultNeurocognitive Development of Motivated Behavior: Dynamic Changes across Childhood and Adolescence
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“Specifically, during adulthood, reciprocal connections between the amygdala and PL (for which the dorsal anterior cingulate is the proposed human homolog) drive the expression of conditioned responses to threat, and their reciprocal connections with the IL (for which the ventromedial PFC is the proposed human homolog)…”
BackgroundDynamical prefrontal population coding during defensive behaviours
Jercog, D., Winke, N., Sung, K., Martín‐Fernández, M., Francioni, C., Rajot, D., Courtin, J., Chaudun, F., Jercog, P. E., Valério, S., et al. (2021) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03726-6 · Cited by 85
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“These results suggest that activation of the BLA-NAc circuit results in activation of the IL, a brain region widely implicated in fear extinction learning (Sotres-Bayon and Quirk, 2010), and that this BLA-NAc circuit activation affected the PL, implicated in fear learning, to a lesser degree.”
BackgroundSensitive periods in affective development: nonlinear maturation of fear learning
Hartley, C. A., & Lee, F. S. (2015) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2014.179 · Cited by 80
“Collectively, these neuroplastic changes in the cortex during adolescence coincide with a transitional phase spanning the juvenile stage in which fear learning and extinction are independent of the cortex and the mature adult stage in which these processes are dynamically regulated by vmPFC-subcortical circuitry (Bake…”
BackgroundTowards new approaches to disorders of fear and anxiety
Dias, B. G., Banerjee, S. B., Goodman, J. V., & Ressler, K. J. (2013) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2013.01.013 · Cited by 79
“Divisions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC)-medial PFC (mPFC) and infralimbic PFC (iPFC) are pivotal sites of consolidation and extinction of fear [19–21].”
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Amount of fear extinction changes its underlying mechanisms
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The social dilemma: prefrontal control of mammalian sociability
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When scientific paradigms lead to tunnel vision: lessons from the study of fear
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“Even within the amygdala, it was found that multiple parallel inhibitory and excitatory circuits are differentially involved 14 and regulated by medial prefrontal neurons during the expression or extinction of conditioned fear.(15) In addition, the same neurons and circuits that were thought to mediate learned fear ha…”
BackgroundSelf-citationChanged Synaptic Plasticity in Neural Circuits of Depressive-Like and Escitalopram-Treated Rats
Li, X., Yuan, Y., Xu, H., Wu, D., Gong, W.-G., Geng, L., Wu, F., Tang, H., Xu, L., & Zhang, Z. (2015) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyv046 · Cited by 72
“Thus, the synaptic changes in BLA might be the result of direct actions of chronic stress or from the reduced inhibition by synapseremodeled mPFC (Sotres-Bayon et al., 2004; Sotres-Bayon and Quirk, 2010; Duman and Voleti, 2012), and these may also modulate the synaptic plasticity in other brain regions (Roozendaal et…”
BackgroundControl of fear by discrete prefrontal GABAergic populations encoding valence-specific information
Cummings, K. A., Bayshtok, S., Dong, T. N., Kenny, P. J., & Clem, R. L. (2022) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2022.07.004 · Cited by 72
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“However, it is unknown whether mPFC engagement is necessary for stressed infants to express or inhibit fear, as is the case for older animals (Kim et al., 2009; Li et al., 2012; Sotres-Bayon and Quirk, 2010).”
BackgroundFear learning and memory across adolescent development
Pattwell, S. S., Lee, F. S., & Casey, B. J. (2013) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.01.016 · Cited by 74
“Distinct subregions within the vmPFC have been differentially implicated in the expression and extinction of conditioned fear (Santini et al., 2008; Sierra-Mercado et al., 2011; Sotres-Bayon and Quirk, 2010).”
BackgroundFarrell, M. R., Sengelaub, D. R., & Wellman, C. L. (2013) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.04.002 · Cited by 73
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“The amygdala is critically involved in fear learning and fear expression (Davis & Whalen, 2001; Ehrlich et al., 2009; LeDoux, 2007), and bidirectional connections between the amygdala and the vmPFC modulate fear expression (Burgos-Robles et al., 2009; Sotres-Bayon & Quirk, 2010).”
BackgroundJi, G., & Neugebauer, V. (2014) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.12432 · Cited by 70
“…mPFC deactivation or dysfunction, such as anxiety (Bishop et al., 2004; Milad et al., 2006; de Visser et al., 2011), post-traumatic stress disorder (Sotres-Bayon & Quirk, 2010; Fontanez-Nuin et al., 2011; Sierra-Mercado et al., 2011), depression (Lobo et al., 2012), schizophrenia (Peled, 2011) and…”
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Cortisol modifies extinction learning of recently acquired fear in men
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“The fear extinction circuit encompasses the amygdala, hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), in particular its ventral part, which inhibits fear responses in the amygdala (Sotres-Bayon and Quirk, 2010; Milad and Quirk, 2012).”
BackgroundMaeng, L. Y., Cover, K. K., Taha, M. B., Landau, A. J., Milad, M. R., & Lebrón‐Milad, K. (2016) · Journal of Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1002/jnr.23826 · Cited by 68
NEUROBIOLOGY OF ANXIETY: FROM NEURAL CIRCUITS TO NOVEL SOLUTIONS?
Etkin, A. (2012) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.21957 · Cited by 71
“[10] These findings also accord well with work in rodents, wherein prelimbic cortex (homologous to human dorsal ACC/mPFC) is involved in expression of conditioned fear, whereas the infralimbic cortex (homologous to ventral ACC/mPFC) is required for fear extinction.[15] The three anxiety disorders we examined in our me…”
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The predator odor avoidance model of post-traumatic stress disorder in rats
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“The ventromedial PFC (vmPFC) facilitates the hypothalamic stress response by indirect projections to the PVN and regulates anxiety and fear by direct projections to extended amygdala (Radley et al., 2006; Sotres-Bayon and Quirk, 2010; Adhikari et al., 2015; Keife et al., 2015; Motzkin et al., 2015).”
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Optogenetics to study the circuits of fear- and depression-like behaviors: A critical analysis
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“…(hypothalamus), hormonal (hypothalamus and pituitary) and behavioral correlates (periaqueductal gray (PAG)) (Davis, 1992), while being controlled by regions involved in the regulation of emotions such as the cingulate cortex and subparts of the frontal cortex (Sotres-Bayon and Quirk, 2010).”
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The MAP(K) of fear: From memory consolidation to memory extinction
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“Moreover, since in the PTSD model studied here we found shocked mice to exhibit an increased conditioned fear response, the notion that the PFC, beyond its known function in fear extinction (33), increasingly emerges to play a role in fear conditioning (33, 34) further sparked our interest in this brain region.”
BackgroundEmerging role for the medial prefrontal cortex in alcohol-seeking behaviors
Klenowski, P. M. (2017) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.09.024 · Cited by 68
A Decision Architecture for Safety Computations
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Anatomy and computational modeling of networks underlying cognitive-emotional interaction
John, Y. J., Bullock, D. H., Zikopoulos, B., & Barbas, H. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00101 · Cited by 65
“The pOFC in primates (Ghashghaei and Barbas, 2002), and IL in rodents (Berretta et al., 2005; Pinto and Sesack, 2008; SierraMercado et al., 2010; Sotres-Bayon and Quirk, 2010; Pinard et al., 2012) send robust excitatory projections to the inhibitory ITCs.”
BackgroundNeuropeptide S: a novel regulator of pain-related amygdala plasticity and behaviors
Ren, W., Kiritoshi, T., Grégoire, S., Ji, G., Guerrini, R., Calò, G., & Neugebauer, V. (2013) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00874.2012 · Cited by 61
Nietzer, S., Bonn, M., Jansen, F., Heiming, R. S., Lewejohann, L., Sachser, N., Asan, E., Lesch, K., & Schmitt, A. G. (2011) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.01.011 · Cited by 58
“he IL provides a particularly strong input to GABAergic interalated cell masses and the lateral central amygdaloid nucleus, hich in turn inhibit amygdala output neurons of the medial cenral nucleus [90–92].”
BackgroundActivation of Nigrostriatal Dopamine Neurons during Fear Extinction Prevents the Renewal of Fear
Bouchet, C. A., Miner, M. A., Loetz, E. C., Rosberg, A. J., Hake, H. S., Farmer, C. E., Ostrovskyy, M., Gray, N. A., & Greenwood, B. N. (2017) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2017.235 · Cited by 59
Guadagno, A., Kang, M. S., Devenyi, G. A., Mathieu, A. P., Rosa‐Neto, P., Chakravarty, M. M., & Walker, C. (2018) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-018-1720-3 · Cited by 61
The modulation of emotional and social behaviors by oxytocin signaling in limbic network
Triana-Del Rio, R., Ranade, S., Guardado, J., LeDoux, J., Klann, E., & Shrestha, P. (2022) · Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnmol.2022.1002846 · Cited by 58
“While PL promotes the expression of freezing, the IL is involved in its extinction (Milad and Quirk, 2002; BurgosRobles et al., 2007; Sotres-Bayon and Quirk, 2010; SierraMercado et al., 2011).”
BackgroundWhat Can Ethobehavioral Studies Tell Us about the Brain's Fear System?
Pellman, B. A., & Kim, J. J. (2016) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2016.04.001 · Cited by 67
“A perplexing question that needs to be addressed is how inhibition/suppression of either the BLA or CEA (or even PL [40] or cerebellum [41]) alone effectively blocks auditory fear conditioning when other regions’ functions are presumably intact (Box 1).”
BackgroundLesuis, S. L., Maurin, H., Borghgraef, P., Lucassen, P. J., LEUVEN, F. V., & Krugers, H. J. (2016) · Oncotarget · doi:10.18632/oncotarget.9776 · Cited by 62
“The mPFC is involved in executive functions and short-term memory, although subregions of the mPFC may respond differently as the infralimbic, prelimbic, and cingulate cortex are functionally and structurally distinct [27].”
Varela, J. A., Wang, J., Christianson, J. P., Maier, S. F., & Cooper, D. C. (2012) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2669-12.2012 · Cited by 56
“The preceding studies did not distinguish between infralimbic (IL) and prelimbic (PL) mPFC, but each makes distinct contributions to emotion expression (Sotres-Bayon and Quirk, 2010).”
BackgroundBerners-Lee, A., Wu, X., & Foster, D. J. (2021) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1158-20.2021 · Cited by 58
Rodríguez-Romaguera, J., Greenberg, B. D., Rasmussen, S. A., & Quirk, G. J. (2016) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.02.012 · Cited by 51
“, infralimbic cortex, prelimbic cortex, amygdala, thalamus) (36), but this, of course, remains to be tested.”
BackgroundSelf-citationKuerbitz, J. S., Arnett, M. G., Ehrman, S. E., Williams, M. T., Vorhees, C. V., Fisher, S. E., Garratt, A. N., Muglia, L. J., Waclaw, R. R., & Campbell, K. (2017) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1412-17.2017 · Cited by 53
“ITCs are known to modulate PFC-amygdalar circuitry (Paré et al., 2004; Sotres-Bayon and Quirk, 2010), and these circuits have been implicated in fear, anxiety, and depression (Wellman et al.”
BackgroundBaker, K., & Richardson, R. (2015) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.039487.114 · Cited by 58
“Further studies are needed to reconcile such findings with the view that the PL and IL exert opposing effects on fear expression and inhibition (Sotres-Bayon and Quirk 2010).”
Cowan, C. S. M., Callaghan, B. L., & Richardson, R. (2013) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/a0034118 · Cited by 55
Palomares-Castillo, E., Hernández‐Pérez, O. R., Pérez-Carrera, D., Crespo‐Ramírez, M., Fuxé, K., & de la Mora, M. P. (2012) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2012.03.047 · Cited by 56
“Converging evidence points out to IL, a subregion of mPFC, and IPC islands as important substrates for fear extinction (for a review see: Herry et al., 2010; Paré et al., 2004; Quirk and Mueller, 2008; Sotres-Bayon and Quirk, 2010).”
The Endocannabinoid System and Anxiety
Lisboa, S. F. D. S., Gomes, F. V., Terzian, A. L. B., de Aguiar, D. C., Moreira, F. A., Resstel, L. B. M., & Guimarães, F. S. (2016) · Vitamins and hormones · doi:10.1016/bs.vh.2016.09.006 · Cited by 56
Vieira, P. A., Corches, A., Lovelace, J. W., Westbrook, K. B., Mendoza, M., & Korzus, E. (2015) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2014.12.012 · Cited by 56
“…Padilla-Coreano, & Quirk, 2010; Sotres-Bayon, Cain, & LeDoux, 2006) via fear excitation and inhibition, respectively (Sierra-Mercado et al., 2010; Sotres-Bayon & Quirk, 2010), which may be due to differential connectivity with the amygdala (Gabbott, Warner, Jays, Salway, & Busby, 2005; Vertes,…”
Long-Term Neural Correlates of Reversible Fear Learning in the Lateral Amygdala
An, B., Hong, I., & Choi, S. (2012) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3017-12.2012 · Cited by 57
“5), suggesting the influence of cortical regions where traces of persistent fear have also been identified (Corcoran and Quirk, 2007; Burgos-Robles et al., 2009; Sacco and Sacchetti, 2010; Sotres-Bayon and Quirk, 2010).”
BackgroundPrefrontal–Bed Nucleus Circuit Modulation of a Passive Coping Response Set
Johnson, S. B., Emmons, E. B., Lingg, R. T., Anderson, R. M., Romig‐Martin, S. A., LaLumiere, R. T., Narayanan, N. S., Viau, V., & Radley, J. J. (2018) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1421-18.2018 · Cited by 53
“…HPA output (Diorio et al., 1993; Akana et al., 2001; Figueiredo et al., 2003; Spencer et al., 2005), defensive behaviors (Bandler et al., 2000; Keay and Bandler, 2001; Franklin et al., 2017), and fear conditioning (Morgan and LeDoux, 1995; Sotres-Bayon and Quirk, 2010; Gilmartin et al., 2014).”
BackgroundNeugebauer, V. (2020) · Handbook of behavioral neuroscience · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815134-1.00004-0 · Cited by 58
Functional architecture of dopamine neurons driving fear extinction learning
Salinas-Hernández, X. I., Zafiri, D., Sigurdsson, T., & Duvarci, S. (2023) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2023.08.025 · Cited by 57
The elusive engram: what can infantile amnesia tell us about memory?
Callaghan, B. L., Li, S., & Richardson, R. (2014) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2013.10.007 · Cited by 51
Spielberg, J. M., Jarcho, J. M., Dahl, R. E., Pine, D. S., Ernst, M., & Nelson, E. E. (2015) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsu165 · Cited by 52
“On the basis of findings of prefrontal regulation of subcortical circuitry (Sotres-Bayon and Quirk, 2010) and recent work indicating important developmental changes in this relationship during adolescence (Gee et al.”
Modulation of pyramidal cell output in the medial prefrontal cortex by mGluR5 interacting with CB1
Kiritoshi, T., Sun, H., Ren, W., Stauffer, S. R., Lindsley, C. W., Conn, P. J., & Neugebauer, V. (2012) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.03.024 · Cited by 50
“The infralimbic region of the mPFC inhibits amygdala output to “extinguish” aversive behavior (Maren and Quirk, 2004; Likhtik et al., 2005; Akirav and Maroun, 2007; Sah and Westbrook, 2008; Pape and Pare, 2010; Sotres-Bayon and Quirk, 2010; Kim and Richardson, 2010; Herry et al., 2010).”
BackgroundPlasticity of human auditory-evoked fields induced by shock conditioning and contingency reversal
Kluge, C., Bauer, M., Leff, A. P., Heinze, H., Dolan, R. J., & Driver, J. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1016124108 · Cited by 48
González‐Pardo, H., Conejo, N. M., Lana, G., & Arias, J. L. (2011) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.11.064 · Cited by 50
Locus coeruleus toggles reciprocal prefrontal firing to reinstate fear
Giustino, T. F., Fitzgerald, P. J., Ressler, R. L., & Maren, S. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1814278116 · Cited by 52
Salinas-Hernández, X. I., & Duvarci, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Synaptic Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsyn.2021.635879 · Cited by 56
Schrammen, E., Roesmann, K., Rosenbaum, D., Redlich, R., Harenbrock, J., Dannlowski, U., & Leehr, E. J. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104895 · Cited by 54
Estradiol modulation of the renin–angiotensin system and the regulation of fear extinction
Parrish, J. N., Bertholomey, M. L., Pang, H. W., Speth, R. C., & Torregrossa, M. M. (2019) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-019-0374-0 · Cited by 51
Neural circuits for the adaptive regulation of fear and extinction memory
Plas, S. L., Tuna, T., Bayer, H., Juliano, V. A. L., Sweck, S. O., Pérez, A. D. A., Hassell, J. E., & Maren, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2024.1352797 · Cited by 55
Metadata
- Authors
- Sotres-Bayon, F., & Quirk, G. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus (PR)
- ORCID
- Quirk, Gregory J
- Venue
- Current Opinion in Neurobiology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-04
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 231-235
- ISSN
- 0959-4388 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2878722
- OpenAlex
- W2141747781
- Cited by
- 625
- References
- 57
- Citations by year
- 2026: 32 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 42 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 49 · 2015: 54 · 2014: 48 · 2013: 62 · 2012: 35
- FWCI
- 3.19
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Current Opinion in Neurobiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5p50mh086400-05, 5r01mh081975-05)
- National Institute of Mental Health (P-50-MH-086400, R01-MH081975, R01MH058883)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neuropharmacology Research
- Keywords
- fear extinction, prefrontal cortex, infralimbic cortex, prelimbic cortex, amygdala, fear regulation, fear expression
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Amygdala, Animals, Association Learning, Behavior, Extinction, Psychological, Fear, Humans, Neural Pathways, Neuronal Plasticity, Prefrontal Cortex
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