School-based programmes to reduce and prevent substance use in different age groups: What works for whom? Systematic review and meta-regression analysis
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Findings from systematic reviews and meta-analyses about the effectiveness of school-based programmes to prevent or reduce substance abuse are inconclusive. We hypothesise that in order to be effective, programmes have to be aligned with the developmental stages of the intended target group (childhood, early, middle, or late adolescence). The present study provides an overview of universal and targeted programmes, while distinguishing four age groups and examining which intervention characteristics are the effective components for the respective groups. METHODS: Databases were searched for controlled studies of school-based programmes, evaluating their effectiveness on either smoking, alcohol or drug use. Multivariate meta-regression analysis was used to analyse the associations between effects and programme characteristics. RESULTS: Our meta-analysis evaluates 288 programmes with a total of 436,180 participants. The findings support our hypothesis that specific aspects of the school-based programmes are effective in some developmental stages, but not for other age groups. The differences in effectiveness are systematically related to psychological and cognitive needs and capacities. DISCUSSION: Our findings highlight the importance of considering a developmental perspective when designing and offering school-based prevention programmes. The various developmental stages offer different possibilities and opportunities for the reduction and prevention of substance use.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This systematic review and meta-regression of 241 studies (288 programmes; 436,180 students aged 4–21) found that school-based substance-use prevention effects and effective components differ by developmental stage. Universal programmes showed small significant effects in elementary and early adolescence, limited effects in middle adolescence, and no significant universal effects in late adolescence, while high-risk late-adolescent programmes showed medium effects for smoking and alcohol.
Key findings
- Across 288 programmes, most targeted smoking (79%), alcohol use (53%), and drug use (38%); 71% were universal, and early adolescence (grades 6–7) was the most commonly targeted age group (43%).
- Universal programmes: elementary school showed small significant effects on smoking (d = −.15), alcohol (d = −.14), and drug use (d = −.14); grades 6–7 showed small significant effects on smoking (d = −.14), alcohol (d = −.10), and drug use (d = −.14); grades 8–9 showed a significant effect only on smoking (d = −.09); grades 10–12 showed no significant effects.
- High-risk programmes: no significant effects for elementary school; grades 6–7 showed small significant effects on smoking (d = −.12), alcohol (d = −.10), and drug use (d = −.08); grades 8–9 showed no significant effects; grades 10–12 showed medium effects on smoking (d = −.35) and alcohol (d = −.32), and a small effect on drug use (d = −.21).
- Meta-regression for universal smoking: elementary school effectiveness was predicted by generic programmes (B = −.23), social skills (B = −.13), self-control (B = −.23), problem solving (B = −.10), and healthy alternatives (B = −.15); early adolescence by self-control (B = −.12), problem solving (B = −.13), social norm adjustment (B = −.08), healthy alternatives (B = −.25), peer education (B = −.09), and parental involvement (B = −.10); middle adolescence had no significant predictors; late adolescence by self-control (B = −.23), social norm adjustment (B = −.23), and peer education (B = −.74, based on a single study).
Methods
- Systematic review and meta-analysis/meta-regression of controlled school-based programmes; searched PsycINFO, Pubmed, ERIC, and COCHRANE (January 1966–April 2013; English, German, Dutch) plus reference lists. Inclusion required school setting, elementary/middle/high school students, behavioural smoking/alcohol/drug outcomes, a control condition, and sufficient data to calculate effect sizes.
- Included 241 studies reporting 288 programmes and 436,180 students aged 4–21. Outcomes were smoking, alcohol use, and drug use; programme content/context was coded dichotomously by two independent researchers, with kappa coefficients from 0.81 to 1.00.
- Random-effects pooled effect sizes were calculated by age group (elementary, grades 6–7, grades 8–9, grades 10–12), heterogeneity was assessed with I², and meta-regression was performed in Stata using “meta-reg,” with sensitivity analyses adjusting for methodological features. Negative effect sizes indicated programme students were less engaged in substance use than controls.
Limitations
- Paper-stated: conclusions from meta-regression coefficients warrant caution about causality; only included variables were analysed, so unmeasured variables may explain variability; programme content/context was based on descriptions, and good programmes may have been poorly described; many studies were excluded because effect sizes could not be calculated, and authors of missing-data studies were not all contacted.
- Evident from the text: heterogeneity was often moderate to high (e.g., universal smoking grades 6–7 I² = 81%; high-risk smoking grades 8–9 I² = 85%); some predictors relied on single studies (e.g., peer education for late-adolescent universal smoking); the oldest age group had small numbers of studies; only 18.4% of evaluations had adequate missing-data handling, and 66% of outcomes were collected within 3 months.
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Claims the paper makes
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- Findingown data
Universal programmes for grade 6 and 7 students demonstrated a small significant effect on drug use (d = -.14).
“Universal programmes for grade 6 and 7 students also demonstrated a small significant effect on smoking behaviour (d = -.14),alcohol use (d = -.10) and drug use (d = -.14).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Universal programmes for elementary school children demonstrated a small and statistically significant effect on smoking behaviour (d = -.15).
“Universal programmes for elementary school children demonstrated a small and statistically significant effect on smoking behaviour (d = -.15).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 8 and 9 students, there were no significant predictors of effectiveness on smoking behaviour.
“For grade 8 and 9 students (middle adolescence), there were no significant predictors of the effectiveness on smoking behaviour.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
No significant effects were found for universal programmes for grade 8 and 9 students on drug use.
“However, no significant effects were found for alcohol use and drug use.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, focusing on healthy alternatives predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.14; p = 0.02).
“focusing on healthy alternatives (B = -0.14;p = 0.02)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingreasoning
No significant effects were found for universal programmes for the oldest age group (grade 10-12).
“Finally, no significant effects were found for universal programmes for the oldest age group.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, involvement of parents in the programme predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -.10; p = 0.02).
“the involvement of parents in the programme (B = -.10;p = 0.02)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For elementary school students, self-control training predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = -0.35; p = 0.06).
“self-control training (B = -0.35;p = 0.06)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 10-12 students, programmes based on a social influence approach predict effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.57; p = 0.01).
“programmes based on a social influence approach (B = -0.57;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 10-12 students, adjustment of the social norm predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -.23; p = 0.02).
“adjustment of the social norm (B = -.23;p = 0.02)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For elementary school students, behavioural management by a parent or teacher predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.20; p = 0.08).
“behavioural management by a parent or teacher (B = -0.20;p = 0.08)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, focusing on healthy alternatives predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -.25; p = 0.01).
“focusing on healthy alternatives (B = -.25;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, peer education predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -.09; p = 0.08).
“peer education (B = -.09;p = 0.08)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, self-control training predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -.12; p = 0.02).
“self-control training (B = -.12;p = 0.02)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For programmes evaluated on alcohol use for the oldest age group, heterogeneity was between low and moderate (I2 = 44%).
“For programmes evaluated on alcohol use, heterogeneity was between low and moderate (I 2 = 44%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Universal programmes for grade 6 and 7 students demonstrated a small significant effect on alcohol use (d = -.10).
“Universal programmes for grade 6 and 7 students also demonstrated a small significant effect on smoking behaviour (d = -.14),alcohol use (d = -.10) and drug use (d = -.14).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Heterogeneity for programmes targeting elementary school students was between low and moderate (smoking I2 = 57%; alcohol use I2 = 38%; drug use I2 = 30%).
“Heterogeneity for programmes targeting elementary school students was between low and moderate (smoking I 2 = 57%; alcohol use I 2 = 38%; drug use I 2 = 30%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
Effect sizes for smoking and alcohol use for the oldest age group were larger than for other age groups.
“This was presumably due to the small number of studies in this age group, as effect sizes for smoking and alcohol use were larger than for other age groups.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 10-12 students, problem solving or decision making skills training predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.16; p = 0.03).
“problem solving or decision making skills training (B = -0.16;p = 0.03)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Heterogeneity for grade 6 and 7 programmes was between moderate and high (smoking I2 = 81%; alcohol use I2 = 74%; drug use I2 = 59%).
“Heterogeneity for this age group was between moderate and high (smoking I 2 = 81%; alcohol use I 2 = 74%; drug use I 2 = 59%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 10-12 students, health education on the interference of substance use with personal goals predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.19; p = 0.05).
“health education on the interference of substance use with personal goals (B = -0.19;p = 0.05)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The majority of programmes in all age groups included health education.
“The majority of programmes in all age groups included health education.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, behavioural management by a parent or teacher predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.12; p = 0.01).
“behavioural management by a parent or teacher (B = -0.12;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For elementary school students, self-control training predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -.23; p = 0.01).
“self-control training (B = -.23;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Universal programmes for elementary school children demonstrated a small significant effect on drug use (d = -.14).
“In addition, we found a small significant effect on drug use (d = -.14).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For elementary school students, problem solving or decision making skills training predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.11; p = 0.05).
“problem solving or decision making skills training (B = -0.11;p = 0.05)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, problem solving or decision making skills training predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -.13; p = 0.01).
“problem solving or decision making skills training (B = -.13;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, social skills training predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = -0.13; p = 0.03).
“social skills training (B = -0.13;p = 0.03)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The most commonly applied general skills training was based on problem solving or decision-making skills training.
“The most commonly applied general skills training was based on problem solving or decision-making skills training.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, self-control training predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.14; p = 0.01).
“self-control training (B = -0.14;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, refusal skills training predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = 0.07; p = 0.01).
“refusal skills training (B = 0.07; p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For elementary school students, problem solving skills training predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -.10; p = 0.06).
“problem solving skills training (B = -.10;p = 0.06)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Universal programmes for grade 8 and 9 students demonstrated a small significant effect on smoking (d = -.09).
“Universal programmes for grade 8 and 9 students demonstrated a small significant effect on smoking (d = -.09).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For elementary school students, self-control training predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.15; p = 0.04).
“self-control training (B = -0.15;p = 0.04)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, problem solving or decision making skills training predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.09; p = 0.03).
“problem solving or decision making skills training (B = -0.09;p = 0.03)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 10-12 students, self-control training predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -.23; p = 0.09).
“self-control training (B = -.23;p = 0.09)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 10-12 students, self-control training predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.20; p = 0.02).
“self-control training (B = -0.20;p = 0.02)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For elementary school students, focusing on healthy alternatives for substance use predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -.15; p = 0.05).
“focusing on healthy alternatives for substance use (B = -.15;p = 0.05)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 10-12 students, refusal skills training predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.41; p = 0.01).
“refusal skills training (B = -0.41;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Programmes containing skill training units related to social emotional learning were present in each age group.
“However, programmes containing skill training units related to social emotional learning were also present in each age group.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, parental involvement predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.09; p = 0.02).
“parental involvement (B = -0.09;p = 0.02)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 10-12 students, applying techniques from cognitive behavioural therapy predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.32; p = 0.01).
“applying techniques from cognitive behavioural therapy (B = -0.32;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
No significant effects were found for universal programmes for grade 8 and 9 students on alcohol use.
“However, no significant effects were found for alcohol use and drug use.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 10-12 students, involvement of parents in the programme predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.29; p = 0.02).
“the involvement of parents in the programme (B = -0.29;p = 0.02)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Universal programmes for grade 6 and 7 students demonstrated a small significant effect on smoking behaviour (d = -.14).
“Universal programmes for grade 6 and 7 students also demonstrated a small significant effect on smoking behaviour (d = -.14),alcohol use (d = -.10) and drug use (d = -.14).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For elementary school students, social skills training predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -.13; p = 0.04).
“social skills training (B = -.13;p = 0.04)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 10-12 students, peer education predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -.74; p = 0.01).
“peer education (B = -.74;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For elementary school students, generic programmes predict effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -.23; p = 0.01).
“For elementary school students, effectiveness on smoking behaviour is predicted by generic programmes (B = -.23;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 8 and 9 students, making a public commitment not to use substances predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = 0.17; p = 0.08).
“making a public commitment not use substances (B = 0.17; p = 0.08)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Universal programmes for elementary school children demonstrated a small significant effect on alcohol use (d = -.14).
“Universal programmes for elementary school children also demonstrated a small significant effect on alcohol use (d = -.14).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, peer education predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = 0.12; p = 0.06).
“peer education (B = 0.12; p = 0.06)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For elementary school students, applying techniques from cognitive behavioural therapy predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.13; p = 0.02).
“applying techniques from cognitive behavioural therapy (B = -0.13;p = 0.02)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, adjustment of the social norm predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -.08; p = 0.03).
“adjustment of the social norm (B = -.08;p = 0.03)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 8 and 9 students, refusal skills training predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = 0.14; p = 0.02).
“refusal skills training (B = 0.14; p = 0.02)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The majority of all included programmes focused on substances.
“The majority of all programmes focused on substances.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, self-control training predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = -0.20; p = 0.01).
“self-control training (B = -0.20;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk elementary school students, refusal skills training predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = 0.24; p = 0.01).
“refusal skills training (B = 0.24; p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 10-12 students, behavioural management by a parent or teacher predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = -0.50; p = 0.01).
“behavioural management by a parent or teacher (B = -0.50;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk elementary school students, health education predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = 0.25; p = 0.06).
“health education (B = 0.25; p = 0.06)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 10-12 students, health education predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = 0.17; p = 0.08).
“health education (B = 0.17; p = 0.08)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
There were no significant predictors of effectiveness of high-risk alcohol programmes for grade 6 and 7 and grade 8 and 9 students.
“There were no significant predictors of effectiveness of programmes for grade 6 and 7 (early adolescence) and grade 8 and 9 students (middle adolescence).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Heterogeneity for grade 8 and 9 high-risk programmes was between moderate and high (smoking I2 = 85%; alcohol use I2 = 60%; drug use I2 = 46%).
“Heterogeneity for this age group was between moderate and high (smoking I 2 = 85%; alcohol use I 2 = 60%; drug use I 2 = 46%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 10-12 students, applying a social influence approach predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = 0.29; p = 0.06).
“applying a social influence approach (B = 0.29; p = 0.06)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 10-12 students, involvement of parents predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.35; p = 0.05).
“the involvement of parents (B = -0.35;p = 0.05)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 8 and 9 students, applying techniques from cognitive behavioural therapy predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -0.36; p = 0.04).
“applying techniques from cognitive behavioural therapy (B = -0.36;p = 0.04)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 10-12 students, self-control training predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.64; p = 0.01).
“self-control training (B = -0.64;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 8 and 9 students, applying principles from cognitive behavioural therapy predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = -0.34; p = 0.05).
“applying principles from cognitive behavioural therapy (B = -0.34;p = 0.05)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 10-12 students, self-control training predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -0.35; p = 0.01).
“self-control training (B = -0.35;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Programmes for grade 6 and 7 high-risk students demonstrated a small significant effect on alcohol use (d = -.10).
“alcohol use (d = -.10)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 10-12 students, programmes based on the Transtheoretical model of behaviour change predict effectiveness on drug use (B = -0.17; p = 0.06).
“programmes based on the Transtheoretical model of behaviour change (B = -0.17;p = 0.06)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 10-12 students, self-control training predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = -0.34; p = 0.01).
“self-control training (B = -0.34;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk elementary school students, altering the social norm regarding substance use predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = 0.18; p = 0.03).
“altering the social norm regarding substance use (B = 0.18; p = 0.03)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Heterogeneity for grade 6 and 7 high-risk programmes evaluated on smoking and alcohol use was between low and moderate (smoking I2 = 39%; alcohol use I2 = 45%).
“Heterogeneity for programmes evaluated on smoking and alcohol use was between low and moderate (smoking I 2 = 39%; alcohol use I 2 = 45%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Programmes for high-risk students in the oldest age group demonstrated a small significant effect on drug use (d = -.21).
“we found a small significant effect on drug use (d = -.21)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, making a public commitment not to use substances predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = -0.15; p = 0.06).
“making a public commitment not to use substances (B = -0.15;p = 0.06)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk elementary school students, teaching students to cope with stress and anxiety predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = 0.31; p = 0.07).
“teaching student to cope with stress and anxiety (B = 0.31; p = 0.07)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk elementary school students, applying a social influence approach predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = 0.29; p = 0.01).
“applying a social influence approach (B = 0.29; p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk elementary school students, health education predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = 0.25; p = 0.01).
“health education (B = 0.25; p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Programmes for high-risk students in the oldest age group demonstrated a medium significant effect on smoking behaviour (d = -.35).
“programmes for high-risk students in the oldest age group demonstrated a medium significant effect on smoking behaviour (d = -.35)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 10-12 students, peer education predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -0.73; p = 0.04).
“peer education (B = -0.73;p = 0.04)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk elementary school students, health education predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = 0.33; p = 0.01).
“health education (B = 0.33; p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk elementary school students, altering the social norm regarding substance use predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = 0.23; p = 0.05).
“altering the social norm regarding substance use (B = 0.23; p = 0.05)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 6 and 7 students, social skills training predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = 0.20; p = 0.04).
“social skills training (B = 0.20; p = 0.04)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Programmes for high-risk elementary school children did not demonstrate a significant effect on smoking behaviour, alcohol use or drug use.
“Programmes for high-risk elementary school children did not demonstrate a significant effect on smoking behaviour, alcohol use or drug use.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk elementary school students, self-control training predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = -0.18; p = 0.04).
“self-control training (B = -0.18;p = 0.04)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Programmes on drug use for grade 6 and 7 high-risk students showed no residual variation.
“Programmes on drug use showed no residual variation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
Included programmes targeting high-risk students for different age groups were less similar than included universal programmes.
“The included programmes targeting high-risk students for different age groups were less similar than the included universal programmes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 10-12 students, adjustment of the social norm predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = -0.23; p = 0.02).
“adjustment of the social norm (B = -0.23;p = 0.02)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
The majority of programmes targeting high-risk students in the older age groups focused on substances.
“The majority of programmes targeting highrisk students in the older age groups focused on substances.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
No significant effects were found for programmes for grade 8 and 9 high-risk students.
“No significant effects were found for programmes for grade 8 and 9 high-risk students.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Programmes for high-risk students in the oldest age group demonstrated a medium significant effect on alcohol use (d = -.32).
“alcohol use (d = -.32)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk elementary school students, refusal skills training predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = 0.24; p = 0.04).
“refusal skills training (B = 0.24; p = 0.04)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 6 and 7 students, applying a social influence approach predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = 0.13; p = 0.09).
“applying a social influence approach (B = 0.13; p = 0.09)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Heterogeneity for high-risk elementary school programmes was between moderate and high (smoking I2 = 69%; alcohol use I2 = 77%; drug use I2 = 81%).
“Heterogeneity was between moderate and high (smoking I 2 = 69%; alcohol use I 2 = 77%; drug use I 2 = 81%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 6 and 7 students, refusal skills training predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = 0.13; p = 0.07).
“refusal skills training (B = 0.13; p = 0.07)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Programmes for grade 6 and 7 high-risk students demonstrated a small significant effect on drug use (d = -.08).
“drug use (d = -.08)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Programmes for high-risk elementary school children were mostly generic programmes, targeting social skills and problem solving or decision-making skills, based on principles of cognitive behavioural therapy.
“Programmes for high-risk elementary school children were mostly generic programmes, targeting social skills and problem solving or decision-making skills, based on principles of cognitive behavioural therapy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Heterogeneity for high-risk oldest age group programmes was high (smoking I2 = 75%; alcohol use I2 = 79%; drug use I2 = 68%).
“Heterogeneity was high (smoking I 2 = 75%; alcohol use I 2 = 79%; drug use I 2 = 68%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 10-12 students, programmes based on the Transtheoretical model of behaviour change predict effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.23; p = 0.01).
“programmes based on the Transtheoretical model of behaviour change (B = -0.23;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 10-12 students, altering the social norm regarding substance use predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -0.30; p = 0.02).
“altering the social norm regarding substance use (B = -0.30;p = 0.02)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In the oldest age group, programmes were mostly based on the trans-theoretical model of change.
“In the oldest age group (late adolescence) programmes were mostly based on the trans-theoretical model of change.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 8 and 9 students, teaching students how to cope with stress and anxiety predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -0.58; p = 0.01).
“teaching students how to cope with stress and anxiety (B = -0.58;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 8 and 9 students, generic programmes predict effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = 0.29; p = 0.07).
“generic programmes (B = 0.29; p = 0.07)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk elementary school students, applying a social influence approach predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = 0.24; p = 0.01).
“applying a social influence approach (B = 0.24; p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 10-12 students, self-control training predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = -0.23; p = 0.09).
“self-control training (B = -0.23;p = 0.09)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 6 and 7 students, health education predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = 0.17; p = 0.04).
“health education (B = 0.17; p = 0.04)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 10-12 students, teaching students how to cope with stress and anxiety predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = -0.19; p = 0.01).
“teaching students how to cope with stress and anxiety (B = -0.19;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk elementary school students, applying a social influence approach predicts effectiveness on smoking behaviour (B = 0.27; p = 0.03).
“applying a social influence approach (B = 0.27; p = 0.03)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, mentoring predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = -0.43; p = 0.01).
“mentoring (B = -0.43;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Programmes for grade 6 and 7 high-risk students demonstrated a small significant effect on smoking behaviour (d = -.12).
“Programmes for grade 6 and 7 students demonstrated a small significant effect on smoking behaviour (d = -.12)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Most of the programmes for the youngest age group involved parents.
“Most of the programmes for the youngest age group involved parents.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For high-risk grade 10-12 students, behavioural management by a parent or teacher predicts effectiveness on alcohol use (B = -0.82; p = 0.01).
“behavioural management by a parent or teacher (B = -0.82;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
There were no significant predictors of effectiveness of universal drug programmes for grade 8 and 9 students.
“There were no significant predictors of effectiveness of programmes for grade 8 and 9 students (middle adolescence).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, problem solving or decision making skills training predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = -0.13; p = 0.03).
“problem solving or decision making skills training (B = -0.13;p = 0.03)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For grade 6 and 7 students, applying techniques from cognitive behavioural therapy predicts effectiveness on drug use (B = -0.18; p = 0.01).
“applying techniques from cognitive behavioural therapy (B = -0.18;p = 0.01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
There was a great amount of heterogeneity in the effectiveness of the programmes targeting different age groups, in accordance with the authors' expectations.
“We observed a great amount of heterogeneity in the effectiveness of the programmes targeting different age groups, which is in accordance with our expectations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In meta-regression of universal programmes, the generic programme characteristic was associated with a smoking effect size coefficient of B=-0.23 (p=0.01) in elementary school students.
“Generic programme | Smoking | -.23 | 0.01 | .04 | 0.63 | .02 | 0.84 | .07 | 0.63”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In meta-regression of universal programmes, peer education was associated with a smoking effect size coefficient of B=-0.74 (p=0.01) in late adolescence.
“Peer education | Smoking | -.22 | 0.35 | -.09 | 0.08 | .03 | 0.65 | -.74 | 0.01”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In meta-regression of universal programmes, social norm was associated with a smoking effect size coefficient of B=-0.08 (p=0.03) in early adolescence.
“Social norm | Smoking | -.09 | 0.16 | -.08 | 0.03 | -.02 | 0.74 | -.06 | 0.53”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In meta-regression of universal programmes, social skills was associated with a smoking effect size coefficient of B=-0.13 (p=0.04) in elementary school students.
“Social skills | Smoking | -.13 | 0.04 | -.04 | 0.33 | .04 | 0.53 | -.01 | 0.91”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Early adolescence (grade 6 and 7) was the most popular period for evaluation of school-based programmes on substance use outcomes, with 43% of included programmes targeting this age group.
“Early adolescence (grade 6 and 7) appeared the most popular period for the evaluation of schoolbased programmes on substance use outcomes, 43% of the included programmes targeted this age group.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In meta-regression of universal programmes, self-control was associated with a smoking effect size coefficient of B=-0.23 (p=0.01) in elementary school students.
“Self-control | Smoking | -.23 | 0.01 | -.12 | 0.02 | -.01 | 0.91 | -.23 | 0.09”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The study included a total of 241 studies reporting on 288 programmes involving 436,180 students.
“We included a total of 241 studies reporting on 288 programmes involving 436,180 students”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In meta-regression of universal programmes, self-control was associated with a smoking effect size coefficient of B=-0.12 (p=0.02) in early adolescence.
“Self-control | Smoking | -.23 | 0.01 | -.12 | 0.02 | -.01 | 0.91 | -.23 | 0.09”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Among universal school-based prevention programmes, the overall effect size for drug use was -0.07 (95% CI -0.26 to 0.13) for grade 10-12 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.15 | -.14 | -.09 | -.15 | -.14 | -.10 | .01 | -.22 | -.14 | -.14 | -.06 | -.07”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In meta-regression of universal programmes, problem solving was associated with a smoking effect size coefficient of B=-0.13 (p=0.01) in early adolescence.
“Problem solving | Smoking | -.10 | 0.06 | -.13 | 0.01 | -.01 | 0.83 | -.01 | 0.93”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In meta-regression of programmes targeting high-risk students, social skills was associated with a smoking effect size coefficient of B=0.20 (p=0.04) in early adolescence.
“Social skills | Smoking | .19 | 0.10 | .20 | 0.04 | .12 | 0.36 | .11 | 0.30”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In meta-regression of programmes targeting high-risk students, peer education was associated with a smoking effect size coefficient of B=-0.73 (p=0.04) in late adolescence.
“Peer education | Smoking b | .09 | 0.57 | .11 | 0.63 | -.84 | 0.16 | -.73 | 0.04”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In meta-regression of programmes targeting high-risk students, self-control was associated with a smoking effect size coefficient of B=-0.35 (p=0.01) in late adolescence.
“Self-control | Smoking | -.17 | 0.19 | -.09 | 0.31 | -.10 | 0.37 | -.35 | 0.01”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Late adolescence is characterized by the escalation of alcohol and drug use.
“Despite the diminished vulnerability to peer pressure and improvement of selfregulatory capabilities, late adolescence is characterized by the escalation of alcohol and drug use”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Brown et al., 2008 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Late adolescents are less vulnerable to peer pressure than early and middle adolescents.
“Late adolescents are less vulnerable to peer pressure than early and middle adolescents”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sumter, Bokhorst, Steinberg, & Westenberg, 2008
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
A clear pattern in programme characteristics that would distinguish studies with positive results from those with no effects has not yet been identified.
“However, a clear pattern in programme characteristics that would distinguish studies with positive results from those with no effects has not yet been identified”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
The transition from childhood and elementary school to adolescence and secondary school is linked to shifting expectancies about the effects of substances from negative to more positive.
“The transition from childhood and elementary school to adolescence and secondary school is linked to shifting expectancies about the effects of substances from negative to more positive”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Masten et al., 2008 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Substance use at a young age is associated with an elevated risk of substance use disorders later in life.
“It is well established that substance use at a young age is associated with an elevated risk of substance use disorders later in life, mental health problems, which may entail a substantial disease burden, followed by significant social and economic costs”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationnone given
All developmental periods offer different possibilities for prevention.
“All developmental periods offer different possibilities for prevention.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Substance use prevention programmes have to attune to developmental needs in order to be effective.
- Premisecitation
Substance use at a young age is associated with mental health problems.
“It is well established that substance use at a young age is associated with an elevated risk of substance use disorders later in life, mental health problems, which may entail a substantial disease burden, followed by significant social and economic costs”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationnone given
Targeting social norms is beneficial for early adolescents.
“Targeting social norms is beneficial for early adolescents.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Substance use prevention programmes have to attune to developmental needs in order to be effective.
- Interpretationnone given
In middle adolescence, universal programmes are not very effective.
“In middle adolescence, universal programmes are not very effective.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Substance use prevention programmes have to attune to developmental needs in order to be effective.
- Interpretationnone given
Elementary school students benefit most from enhancing personal competencies.
“Elementary school students benefit most from enhancing personal competencies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Substance use prevention programmes have to attune to developmental needs in order to be effective.
- Study design and conductown data
Sensitivity analysis revealed that all predictors for grade 6 and 7 universal alcohol programmes remain significant after controlling for study quality.
“Sensitivity analysis revealed that all predictors remain significant after controlling for study quality (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
All listed components for grade 6 and 7 universal smoking programmes are related to stronger effects.
“The components are all related to stronger effects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Sensitivity analyses demonstrated no changes for elementary school universal drug programmes after controlling for study quality.
“Sensitivity analyses demonstrated no changes after controlling for study quality.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Adequate handling of missing data was present in the minority of the evaluations (18%).
“Adequate handling of missing data was only present in the minority of the evaluations (18%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Sensitivity analyses attested that all predictors for elementary school universal smoking programmes remain significant after controlling for methodological quality of the studies.
“Sensitivity analyses attested that all predictors remain significant after controlling for the methodological quality of the studies (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Sensitivity analysis showed that the influence of all predictors for grade 10-12 universal alcohol programmes essentially remains unaltered after controlling for study quality.
“Sensitivity analysis showed that the influence of all predictors essentially remains unaltered after controlling for study quality (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Sensitivity analysis demonstrates that the predictors for elementary school universal alcohol programmes remain significant after controlling for study quality.
“Sensitivity analysis demonstrates that the predictors remain significant after controlling for study quality (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
All programme components for elementary school universal smoking programmes are associated with stronger effects.
“All programme components are associated with stronger effects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The lack of significant effects for the oldest age group was presumably due to the small number of studies in this age group.
“This was presumably due to the small number of studies in this age group, as effect sizes for smoking and alcohol use were larger than for other age groups.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
All listed programme components for elementary school universal alcohol programmes are related to stronger effects.
“All programme components are related to stronger effects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
After controlling for study quality, making a public commitment not to use substances is no longer significant for grade 8 and 9 universal alcohol programmes.
“After controlling for study quality, making a public commitment not to use substances is no longer significant (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Sensitivity analyses demonstrate that all predictors for grade 6 and 7 universal smoking programmes remain significant after controlling for study quality.
“Sensitivity analyses demonstrate that all predictors remain significant after controlling for study quality (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
Most predictors for grade 6 and 7 universal alcohol programmes are related to favourable effects.
“Most predictors are related to favourable effects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
All listed components for grade 10-12 universal smoking programmes are related to larger reductions in smoking behaviour.
“All components are related to larger reductions in smoking behaviour.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
All listed components for grade 10-12 universal alcohol programmes are related to larger reductions in alcohol use.
“All components are related to larger reductions in alcohol use.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
These programme components for high-risk elementary school smoking programmes are all related to adverse outcomes.
“These programme components, however, are all related to adverse outcomes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Sensitivity analysis demonstrates that all predictors for high-risk elementary school drug programmes remain significant after controlling for study quality.
“Sensitivity analysis demonstrates that all predictors remain significant after controlling for study quality (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
All listed programme components for high-risk grade 10-12 smoking programmes are related to larger reductions in smoking behaviour.
“All programme components are related to larger reductions in smoking behaviour.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Sensitivity analysis demonstrates that all predictors for high-risk elementary school alcohol programmes remain significant after controlling for study quality.
“Sensitivity analysis demonstrates that all predictors remain significant after controlling for study quality (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data
After controlling for study quality, the negative influence of generic programmes on high-risk grade 8 and 9 smoking is no longer significant.
“After controlling for study quality, the negative influence of generic programmes is no longer significant (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Health education and applying a social influence approach are related to less positive results for high-risk grade 10-12 drug programmes.
“Health education and applying a social influence approach are related to less positive results.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
These predictors for grade 6 and 7 universal drug programmes are all related to superior effects.
“These predictors are all related to superior effects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Sensitivity analysis demonstrates that all predictors for high-risk grade 10-12 alcohol programmes remain significant after controlling for study quality.
“Sensitivity analysis demonstrates that all predicators remain significant after controlling for study quality (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
Applying principles from cognitive behavioural therapy is related to larger reductions in drug use for high-risk grade 8 and 9 students.
“which is related to larger reductions in drug use.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
All these programme components for high-risk elementary school alcohol programmes are related to less favourable outcomes.
“All these programme components, however, are related to less favourable outcomes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
All other programme components for high-risk elementary school drug programmes are related to less favourable outcomes.
“All other programme components are related to less favourable outcomes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Self-control training is related to larger effects on drug use in high-risk elementary school programmes.
“Self-control training is related to larger effects on drug use.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
After controlling for study quality, all predictors for grade 6 and 7 universal drug programmes remain significant.
“After controlling for study quality, all predictors remain significant (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The programme components for high-risk grade 10-12 alcohol programmes are all related to larger reductions in alcohol use.
“The programme components are all related to larger reductions in alcohol use.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Sensitivity analysis demonstrates that the model for grade 10-12 universal drug programmes remains marginally significant after controlling for study quality.
“Sensitivity analysis demonstrates that the model remains marginally significant after controlling for study quality (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data
After controlling for study quality, altering the social norm regarding substance use and peer education are no longer significant for high-risk grade 10-12 smoking programmes.
“After controlling for study quality, altering the social norm regarding substance use and peer education are no longer significant (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Sensitivity analysis demonstrates that the influence of social skills training on high-risk grade 6 and 7 smoking remains significant after controlling for study quality.
“Sensitivity analysis demonstrates that the influence of social skills training remains significant after controlling for study quality (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data
After controlling for study quality, the influence of health education on high-risk elementary school smoking is no longer significant.
“After controlling for study quality, the influence of health education is no longer significant (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Study design and conductown data
After controlling for study quality, all predictors for high-risk grade 6 and 7 drug programmes remain significant.
“After controlling for study quality, all predictors remain significant (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
The social skills training component for high-risk grade 6 and 7 smoking programmes is related to less favourable outcomes.
“The programme component is related to less favourable outcomes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Sensitivity analysis demonstrates that the model for high-risk grade 8 and 9 drug programmes remains significant after controlling for study quality.
“Sensitivity analysis demonstrates that the model remains significant after controlling for study quality.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
All programme components for high-risk grade 6 and 7 drug programmes are related to less favourable outcomes.
“All programme components are related to less favourable outcomes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Based on overall effect sizes, in elementary school, universal programmes appear more effective than programmes targeting high-risk students.
“Based on the overall effect sizes it can be concluded that in elementary school, universal programmes appear more effective than programmes targeting highrisk students.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
For high risk late adolescents, programmes based on the Transtheoretical model of behaviour change appear more appropriate.
“For these high risk students, programmes based on the Transtheoretical model of behaviour change appear more appropriate.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Refusal skills training was marginally related to adverse outcomes of universal programmes as well as programmes for high risk students.
“Refusal skills training was marginally related to adverse outcomes of universal programmes as well as programmes for high risk students.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Typical substance use prevention strategies, such as health education, preparing students for social pressures to use substances and refusal skills training, were not effective in elementary school.
“Typical substance use prevention strategies, such as health education, preparing student for social pressures to use substances and refusal skills training were not effective.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The results confirmed the hypothesis that elementary school programmes should not necessarily address substances.
“Our results confirmed both hypotheses.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
For most substance use prevention strategies, there are differential effects for the different developmental stages.
“For most substance use prevention strategies, however, we found differential effects for the different developmental stages.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Late adolescents benefit from universal programmes based on a social influences approach teaching refusal skills.
“As opposed to early and middle adolescents, late adolescents do benefit from universal programmes based on a social influences approach teaching refusal skills.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
In programmes for high risk students, programmes with a social influences approach, refusal skills training, and health education were related to adverse results in the majority of high risk students.
“In programmes for high risk students, programmes with a social influences approach, refusal skills training, and health education, were related to adverse results in the majority of high risk students.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Analyses of universal programmes revealed that generic programmes, teaching basic skills such as social skills, self-control and problem solving skills, and healthy behaviours are most beneficial for elementary school students.
“The analyses of universal programmes revealed that generic programmes, teaching basic skills such as social skills, self-control and problem solving skills, and healthy behaviours are most benificial for elementary school students.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Universal programmes were not very effective in middle adolescence, as indicated by relatively low effect-sizes overall.
“Universal programmes were not very effective as indicated by the relatively low effect-sizes overall”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
In early adolescence, universal programmes and programmes targeting high-risk students have rather similar effects.
“In early adolescence, universal programmes and programmes targeting high-risk students have rather similar effects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The involvement of parents can result in more positive outcomes in late adolescents.
“Finally, the involvement of parents can result in more positive outcomes as well”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The involvement of parents can be an effective substance use prevention strategy in early adolescence.
“Our findings suggest that the involvement of parents can also be an effective substance use prevention strategy in early adolescence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The results suggest that early adolescents will not refrain from using substances because they are aware of social pressures and psychologically prepared to resist them.
“Our results suggest that early adolescents will not refrain from using substances because they are aware of social pressures and psychologically prepared to resist them.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
A few substance use prevention strategies appeared significant in all developmental stages, with the exception of middle adolescence.
“There were a few substance use prevention strategies that appeared significant in all developmental stages, with the exception of middle adolescence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
In universal programmes, self-control training, problem solving skills training, and techniques from cognitive behavioural therapy appeared beneficial for the majority of students.
“In universal programmes self-control training, problem solving skills training, and techniques from cognitive behavioural therapy appeared beneficial for the majority of students.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The enhancement of basic skills, such as self-control and decision making skills, is related to positive results in early adolescents.
“Finally, our findings suggest that the enhancement of basic skills, such as selfcontrol and decision making skills, is not only beneficial for elementary school students, but is related to positive results in early adolescents as well.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The results did not confirm a positive influence of peer education in middle adolescence.
“Our results did not confirm such a positive influence of peer education.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Basic skill training such as self-control and problem solving or decision making skills training appears effective in late adolescents.
“In addition, basic skill training such as self-control and problem solving or decision making skills training appears effective as well”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Behavioural change in middle adolescence is possible only with individuals already demonstrating substance use problems, who are willing to change.
“Although our findings imply that behavioural change in middle adolescence is possible, this appears only achievable with individuals already demonstrating substance use (problems), who are willing to change.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Programmes targeting high-risk students are promising in middle adolescence.
“although programmes targeting high-risk students are promising.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Health education on the interference of substance use with personal goals is an effective substance use prevention strategy in universal programmes for late adolescents.
“Health education on the interference of substance use with personal goals is also an effective substance use prevention strategy in universal programmes, which is in accordance with late adolescents' future orientation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
There is a negative influence of refusal skills training in middle adolescence.
“However, we did find a negative influence of refusal skills training, which is in line with the characteristics of middle adolescence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The results confirmed the hypothesis that elementary school students benefit most from programmes teaching them basic skills, helping them master academic and social situations.
“Our results confirmed both hypotheses.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
There are differences in the components contributing to the effectiveness of programmes for each of the different age groups.
“In addition, we found differences in the components contributing to the effectiveness of programmes for each of the different age groups.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
High-risk students benefit most from programmes based on the principles of cognitive behavioural therapy, teaching students to cope with stress and anxiety.
“High-risk students benefit most from programmes based on the principles of cognitive behavioural therapy, teaching students to cope with stress and anxiety.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
Sensitivity analysis demonstrates that all predictors for high-risk grade 10-12 drug programmes remain significant after controlling for study quality.
“Sensitivity analysis demonstrates that all predictors remain significant after controlling for study quality (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- May combine two claims. 28
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 23
- The quote only partly states this claim. 32
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataHeterogeneity for grade 8 and 9 programmes was between low and moderate for smoking (I2 = 38%) and between moderate and high for alcohol use (I2 = 59%) and drug use (I2 = 70%).
“Heterogeneity for this age group was between low and moderate for programmes evaluated on smoking (I 2 = 38%) and between moderate and high for programmes evaluated on alcohol use (I 2 = 59%) and drug use (I 2 = 70%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningHeterogeneity was high for programmes evaluated on smoking (I2 = 76%) and drug use (I2 = 85%) for the oldest age group.
“Heterogeneity was high for programmes evaluated on smoking (I 2 = 76%) and drug use (I 2 = 85%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe most common theoretical orientation of the programmes for most age groups was the social influence approach, with the exception of alcohol and drug use prevention programmes for grade 10-12 students which are mostly based on the trans-theoretical model of change.
“The most common theoretical orientation of the programmes for most age groups was the social influence approach, with the exception of alcohol and drug use prevention programmes for grade 10-12 students which are mostly based on the trans-theoretical model of change.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataRefusal skills training was very common.
“Refusal skills training was also very common.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataProgrammes targeting grade 6 and 7 high-risk students mostly included health education and refusal skills training and applied a social influence approach.
“Programmes targeting grade 6 and 7 high-risk students (early adolescence) mostly included health education and refusal skills training and applied a social influence approach.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMost of these programmes involved several skill training units related to social emotional learning, of which problem solving or decision making skills training was the most common.
“Most of these programmes involved several skill training units related to social emotional learning, of which problem solving or decision making skills training was the most common.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong universal school-based prevention programmes, the overall effect size for alcohol use was -0.22 (95% CI -0.48 to -0.04) for grade 10-12 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.15 | -.14 | -.09 | -.15 | -.14 | -.10 | .01 | -.22 | -.14 | -.14 | -.06 | -.07”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong programmes targeting high-risk students, the overall effect size for alcohol use was -0.32 (95% CI -0.55 to -0.08) for grade 10-12 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.09 | -.12 | -.25 | -.35 | .00 | -.10 | -.13 | -.32 | -.10 | -.08 | -.24 | -.21”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong programmes targeting high-risk students, the overall effect size for alcohol use was -0.13 (95% CI -0.30 to 0.03) for grade 8 and 9 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.09 | -.12 | -.25 | -.35 | .00 | -.10 | -.13 | -.32 | -.10 | -.08 | -.24 | -.21”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong programmes targeting high-risk students, the overall effect size for smoking was -0.35 (95% CI -0.48 to -0.21) for grade 10-12 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.09 | -.12 | -.25 | -.35 | .00 | -.10 | -.13 | -.32 | -.10 | -.08 | -.24 | -.21”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong programmes targeting high-risk students, the overall effect size for smoking was -0.12 (95% CI -0.16 to -0.07) for grade 6 and 7 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.09 | -.12 | -.25 | -.35 | .00 | -.10 | -.13 | -.32 | -.10 | -.08 | -.24 | -.21”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong universal school-based prevention programmes, the overall effect size for alcohol use was 0.01 (95% CI -0.06 to 0.07) for grade 8 and 9 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.15 | -.14 | -.09 | -.15 | -.14 | -.10 | .01 | -.22 | -.14 | -.14 | -.06 | -.07”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong universal school-based prevention programmes, the overall effect size for drug use was -0.14 (95% CI -0.20 to -0.08) for grade 6 and 7 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.15 | -.14 | -.09 | -.15 | -.14 | -.10 | .01 | -.22 | -.14 | -.14 | -.06 | -.07”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong programmes targeting high-risk students, the overall effect size for drug use was -0.08 (95% CI -0.12 to -0.04) for grade 6 and 7 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.09 | -.12 | -.25 | -.35 | .00 | -.10 | -.13 | -.32 | -.10 | -.08 | -.24 | -.21”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong universal school-based prevention programmes, the overall effect size for alcohol use was -0.14 (95% CI -0.21 to -0.08) for grade 1-5 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.15 | -.14 | -.09 | -.15 | -.14 | -.10 | .01 | -.22 | -.14 | -.14 | -.06 | -.07”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn meta-regression of universal programmes, healthy alternatives was associated with a smoking effect size coefficient of B=-0.15 (p=0.05) in elementary school students.
“Healthy alternatives | Smoking | -.15 | 0.05 | -.25 | 0.01 | -.00 | 0.97 | .18 | 0.26”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn meta-regression of universal programmes, healthy alternatives was associated with a smoking effect size coefficient of B=-0.25 (p=0.01) in early adolescence.
“Healthy alternatives | Smoking | -.15 | 0.05 | -.25 | 0.01 | -.00 | 0.97 | .18 | 0.26”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong programmes targeting high-risk students, the overall effect size for drug use was -0.10 (95% CI -0.27 to 0.08) for grade 1-5 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.09 | -.12 | -.25 | -.35 | .00 | -.10 | -.13 | -.32 | -.10 | -.08 | -.24 | -.21”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong universal school-based prevention programmes, the overall effect size for smoking was -0.15 (95% CI -0.21 to -0.08) for grade 1-5 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.15 | -.14 | -.09 | -.15 | -.14 | -.10 | .01 | -.22 | -.14 | -.14 | -.06 | -.07”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong universal school-based prevention programmes, the overall effect size for smoking was -0.09 (95% CI -0.13 to -0.06) for grade 8 and 9 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.15 | -.14 | -.09 | -.15 | -.14 | -.10 | .01 | -.22 | -.14 | -.14 | -.06 | -.07”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong programmes targeting high-risk students, the overall effect size for alcohol use was 0.00 (95% CI -0.17 to 0.16) for grade 1-5 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.09 | -.12 | -.25 | -.35 | .00 | -.10 | -.13 | -.32 | -.10 | -.08 | -.24 | -.21”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong programmes targeting high-risk students, the overall effect size for drug use was -0.21 (95% CI -0.37 to -0.06) for grade 10-12 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.09 | -.12 | -.25 | -.35 | .00 | -.10 | -.13 | -.32 | -.10 | -.08 | -.24 | -.21”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataThe majority of programmes were universal (71%).
“The majority of programmes were universal (71%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMost programmes concentrated on smoking (79%), more than half were directed at alcohol use (53%), and about 38% at drug use.
“Most programmes concentrated on smoking (79%), more than half of the programmes were directed at alcohol use (53%), and about 38% of the programmes at drug use.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong programmes targeting high-risk students, the overall effect size for drug use was -0.24 (95% CI -0.53 to 0.04) for grade 8 and 9 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.09 | -.12 | -.25 | -.35 | .00 | -.10 | -.13 | -.32 | -.10 | -.08 | -.24 | -.21”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong universal school-based prevention programmes, the overall effect size for smoking was -0.14 (95% CI -0.20 to -0.09) for grade 6 and 7 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.15 | -.14 | -.09 | -.15 | -.14 | -.10 | .01 | -.22 | -.14 | -.14 | -.06 | -.07”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong universal school-based prevention programmes, the overall effect size for alcohol use was -0.10 (95% CI -0.15 to -0.05) for grade 6 and 7 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.15 | -.14 | -.09 | -.15 | -.14 | -.10 | .01 | -.22 | -.14 | -.14 | -.06 | -.07”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong programmes targeting high-risk students, the overall effect size for alcohol use was -0.10 (95% CI -0.15 to -0.04) for grade 6 and 7 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.09 | -.12 | -.25 | -.35 | .00 | -.10 | -.13 | -.32 | -.10 | -.08 | -.24 | -.21”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong programmes targeting high-risk students, the overall effect size for smoking was -0.09 (95% CI -0.25 to 0.08) for grade 1-5 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.09 | -.12 | -.25 | -.35 | .00 | -.10 | -.13 | -.32 | -.10 | -.08 | -.24 | -.21”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong universal school-based prevention programmes, the overall effect size for drug use was -0.06 (95% CI -0.22 to 0.09) for grade 8 and 9 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.15 | -.14 | -.09 | -.15 | -.14 | -.10 | .01 | -.22 | -.14 | -.14 | -.06 | -.07”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong universal school-based prevention programmes, the overall effect size for smoking was -0.15 (95% CI -0.36 to 0.06) for grade 10-12 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.15 | -.14 | -.09 | -.15 | -.14 | -.10 | .01 | -.22 | -.14 | -.14 | -.06 | -.07”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong programmes targeting high-risk students, the overall effect size for smoking was -0.25 (95% CI -0.56 to 0.05) for grade 8 and 9 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.09 | -.12 | -.25 | -.35 | .00 | -.10 | -.13 | -.32 | -.10 | -.08 | -.24 | -.21”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataAmong universal school-based prevention programmes, the overall effect size for drug use was -0.14 (95% CI -0.28 to -0.01) for grade 1-5 students.
“Overall effect size: Cohen's d | -.15 | -.14 | -.09 | -.15 | -.14 | -.10 | .01 | -.22 | -.14 | -.14 | -.06 | -.07”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn meta-regression of programmes targeting high-risk students, principles of cognitive behaviour therapy was associated with a smoking effect size coefficient of B=-0.36 (p=0.04) in middle adolescence.
“Principles cognitive behaviour therapy | Smoking b | .13 | 0.29 | -.01 | 0.92 | -.36 | 0.04 | -10 | 0.24”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn meta-regression of programmes targeting high-risk students, coping with stress was associated with a smoking effect size coefficient of B=-0.58 (p=0.01) in middle adolescence.
“Coping with stress | Smoking | .31 | 0.07 | -.04 | 0.65 | -.58 | 0.01 | -.19 | 0.01”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn meta-regression of programmes targeting high-risk students, coping with stress was associated with a smoking effect size coefficient of B=-0.19 (p=0.01) in late adolescence.
“Coping with stress | Smoking | .31 | 0.07 | -.04 | 0.65 | -.58 | 0.01 | -.19 | 0.01”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn meta-regression of programmes targeting high-risk students, social influence approach was associated with a smoking effect size coefficient of B=0.27 (p=0.03) in elementary school students.
“Social influence approach | Smoking | .27 | 0.03 | .11 | 0.19 | -.16 | 0.41 | -.15 | 0.14”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataIn meta-regression of universal programmes, parents involved was associated with a smoking effect size coefficient of B=-0.10 (p=0.02) in early adolescence.
“Parents involved | Smoking | -.09 | 0.27 | -.10 | 0.02 | .01 | 0.93 | .10 | 0.61”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningOne explanation for the inconclusive results might stem from the absence of a developmental perspective on substance use prevention and interventions.
“One explanation for the inconclusive results might stem from the absence of a developmental perspective on substance use prevention and interventions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Most programmes consider the age of substance use initiation as an appropriate timing of the programme, but differences of psychological and cognitive needs and capacities of the intended target groups are usually not taken into account.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Substance use prevention programmes have to attune to developmental needs in order to be effective.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationConformity to peers peaks during early adolescence, as social acceptance becomes more important.
“That is, conformity to peers peaks during this developmental period, as social acceptance becomes more important”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Forehand & Wierson, 1994 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationReward-seeking behaviour culminates in middle adolescence, with the presence of peers resulting in a substantial increase in risk-taking behaviour.
“Reward-seeking behaviour culminates in middle adolescence (Steinberg, 2010), with the presence of peers resulting in a substantial increase in risk-taking behaviour (Steinberg, 2007)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationSeveral systematic reviews and meta-analyses of substance use prevention programmes identified studies either demonstrating significant effects or showing no effect at all.
“Several systematic reviews and meta-analyses of substance use prevention programmes identified studies either demonstrating significant effects, or showing no effect at all”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn elementary school, substance use is rare and expectancies about the effects of substances are predominantly negative.
“In elementary school, substance use is rare and expectancies about the effects of substances are predominantly negative”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Masten, Faden, Zucker, & Spear, 2008
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSubstance use at a young age may entail a substantial disease burden and significant social and economic costs.
“It is well established that substance use at a young age is associated with an elevated risk of substance use disorders later in life, mental health problems, which may entail a substantial disease burden, followed by significant social and economic costs”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationIt is generally assumed that the most effective method to prevent substance use in early adolescence is the social influence approach.
“It is generally assumed that the most effective method to prevent substance use in this stage is the social influence approach”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Cuijpers, 2002 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Newton, O'Leary-Barrett, & Conrod, 2013
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Newton, Conrod, Teesson, & Faggiano, 2012
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenDuring late adolescence, opportunities for substance use prevention increase.
“During late adolescence, opportunities for substance use prevention increase.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Substance use prevention programmes have to attune to developmental needs in order to be effective.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataIn the majority of the evaluations, a randomized design was used (73%).
“In the majority of the evaluations, a randomized design was used (73%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataBoth refusal skills training and making a public commitment not to use substances are related to adverse effects in grade 8 and 9 universal alcohol programmes.
“However, both predictors are related to adverse effects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationFor late adolescents, many social activities occur in drinking contexts and substance use becomes more and more normalized.
“For late adolescents, many social activities occur in drinking contexts and substance use becomes more and more normalized”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Schulenberg & Maggs, 2002
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataSlightly more than half of the evaluations appeared free of other biases (53%).
“slightly more than half of the evaluations appeared free of other biases as well (53%).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataMost of the evaluations appeared free of selective reporting (88%).
“Most of the evaluations also appeared free of selective reporting (88%)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataVariables were coded separately by two independent researchers, and inter-rater reliability was outstanding with kappa coefficients ranging from 0.81 to 1.00.
“Variables were coded separately by two independent researchers.The inter-rater reliability was outstanding.Kappa coefficients corrected for chance agreement ranged from 0.81 (problem solving or decision making skill training) to 1.00 (mentoring).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). The quote only partly states this claim.
Study design and conductown dataSensitivity analyses demonstrate that all predictors for grade 10-12 universal smoking programmes remain significant after controlling for study quality.
“Sensitivity analyses demonstrate that all predictors remain significant after controlling for study quality (results not shown).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
Interpretationown dataAdverse effects are found for refusal skills training and peer education in grade 6 and 7 universal alcohol programmes.
“Adverse effects are found refusal skills training and peer education.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe influence of peer education on smoking in grade 10-12 universal programmes is based on a single study and firmer conclusions require more data.
“However, the influence of peer education is based on a single study and firmer conclusions require more data.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataGeneric programmes are related to less favourable outcomes, while teaching students how to cope with stress and anxiety and applying techniques from cognitive behavioural therapy are related to larger reductions in smoking behaviour for high-risk grade 8 and 9 students.
“Generic programmes are related to less favourable outcomes, while teaching students how to cope with stress and anxiety and applying techniques from cognitive behavioural therapy are related to larger reductions in smoking behaviour.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataSelf-control training, programmes based on the Transtheoretical model and behavioural management by a parent or teacher are related to larger reductions in drug behaviour for high-risk grade 10-12 students.
“Self-control training, programmes based on the Transtheoretical model and behavioural management by a parent or teacher are related to larger reductions in drug behaviour.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenA substance use prevention strategy or methodological feature could only be coded as present if it was reported somewhere; characteristics that are not reported are not always absent and vice versa.
“We were only able to code a certain substance use prevention strategy or methodological feature as present if it was reported somewhere.We are aware that characteristics that are not reported, are not always absent and vice”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataHigh risk late adolescents benefit from self-control training and the involvement of parents.
“Corresponding to our results of universal programmes, high risk late adolescents do benefit from self-control training and the involvement of parents.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenMany of these findings can be subscribed to changes in biological, cognitive, emotional and social development as well as to changes in the physical and social environment that take place in childhood and adolescence.
“Many of these findings can be subscribed to changes in biological, cognitive, emotional and social development as well as to changes in the physical and social environment that take place in childhood and adolescence.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataUniversal prevention appears difficult in middle adolescence and none of the selected substance use prevention strategies were related to more favourable results.
“Universal prevention however, appears difficult and none of the selected substance use prevention strategies were related to more favourable results.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningThe study demonstrates that it makes good sense to adopt a developmental perspective when designing and offering preventive interventions for substance use in youngsters.
“To summarize, our study demonstrates that it makes good sense to adopt a developmental perspective when designing and offering preventive interventions for substance use in youngsters.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningSocial norm strategies were related to positive results in early adolescents, while preparing students for peer pressure was not.
“The finding that social norm strategies were related to positive results in early adolescents, while preparing students for peer pressure was not, does fit in with the most important developmental changes in early adolescence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenProgramme characteristics were coded by two independent researchers with outstanding inter-rater reliability.
“the coding of programme characteristics by two independent researchers with outstanding inter-rater reliability”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenSensitivity analyses were used in order to adjust for methodological features of the reviewed studies.
“and sensitivity analyses in order to adjust for methodological features of the reviewed studies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
Interpretationnone givenAll developmental periods offer different possibilities for the prevention or reduction of substance use fitting in with the primary developmental tasks and changes defining each developmental stage.
“All developmental periods offer different possibilities for the prevention or reduction of substance use fitting in with the primary developmental tasks and changes defining each developmental stage.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningHigh risk late adolescents do not benefit from a social influences approach or refusal skills training; these strategies are even counterproductive.
“Unlike our findings of universal programmes, high risk late adolescents do not benefit from a social influences approach or refusal skills training.These substance use prevention strategies are even counterproductive.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningBecause conclusions are based on regression coefficients expressing the strength of a substance use prevention strategy on behavioural outcomes, some caution is warranted with making conclusions about causality.
“Because our conclusions are based on regression coefficients expressing the strength of a substance use prevention strategy on behavioural outcomes, some caution is warranted with making conclusions about causality.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe social influence approach in itself was not related to the effectiveness of universal programmes and was marginally related to adverse outcomes in high risk students.
“The social influence approach in itself was not related to the effectiveness of universal programmes and marginally related to adverse outcomes in high risk students.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningThe conclusions were only based on the variables that were included in the analyses, and it is possible that variability in programme effects is related to an unmeasured variable.
“Another limitation of our research strategy is that the conclusions were only based on the variables that were included in the analyses.It is always possible that the variability in programme effects is related to an unmeasured variable.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataA large number of studies were excluded because effect sizes could not be calculated, and this exclusion could have influenced the findings.
“Finally, we excluded a large number of studies due to the fact that we were not able to calculate effect sizes.Considering the magnitude of our study, we were not able to contact all authors of studies with missing data.Exclusion of these studies, however, could have influenced our findings.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningThe analyses were based on a description of the content and context of the programmes, but good programmes may have been described poorly.
“Another limitation of our study is the fact that we based our analyses on a description of the content and context of the programmes, but good programmes may have been described poorly.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataAnalyses of programmes for high risk students suggested that drawing attention to substance use can even be harmful in elementary school, as several substance use prevention strategies addressing substances were related to adverse outcomes in high risk students.
“The analyses of programmes for high risk students suggested that drawing the attention to substance use can even be harmful in this developmental stage, as several substance use prevention strategies addressing substances were related to adverse outcomes in high risk students.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone givenThe study used systematic search strategies.
“Other strengths of our study are the systematic search strategies”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningThe study only included controlled studies with longitudinal data, in which the utilization of the substance use prevention strategies were antecedent to the measurement of behavioural outcomes, strengthening etiological inference.
“However, our study only included controlled studies with longitudinal data, in which the utilization of the substance use prevention strategies were antecedent to the measurement of behavioural outcomes, strengthening etiological inference.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Most programmes consider the age of substance use initiation as an appropriate timing of the programme, but differences of psychological and cognitive needs and capacities of the intended target groups are usually not taken into account.
“Although most programmes consider the age of substance use initiation as an appropriate timing of the programme, differences of psychological and cognitive needs and capacities of the intended target groups are usually not taken into account.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Substance use prevention programmes have to attune to developmental needs in order to be effective.
“We suspect that substance use prevention programmes have to attune to these developmental needs in order to be effective.”
The paper relies on this without support.
During development from children to adults, youngsters cycle through several developmental stages, which are all characterized by specific needs and possibilities.
“However, during their development from children to adults, youngsters cycle through several developmental stages, which are all characterized by specific needs and possibilities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
None of the available reviews and meta-analyses considers the effectiveness of substance use prevention programmes while taking into account the different developmental stages.
“Although there are several reviews and meta-analyses available on the effectiveness of substance use prevention and interventions, none of these studies considers the effectiveness of these programmes while taking into account the different developmental stages.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Characteristics that are not reported in programme descriptions are not always absent, and reported characteristics are not always present.
“We are aware that characteristics that are not reported, are not always absent and vice”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Substance use prevention efforts can be more challenging in high school.
“In contrast, substance use prevention efforts can be more challenging in high school [35].”
From Effectiveness of the Botvin High School LifeSkills Training Intervention on Adolescent Substance Use: A Cluster Randomized Trial (2026) · cites this paper as [35]
No fixed pathways appear to lead to each specific DSM- or ICD-defined disorder.
“Therefore, there do not seem to be fixed pathways leading to each specific DSM or ICD defined disorder.30,32”
From Preventive strategies for mental health (2018) · cites this paper as [32]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
High-risk late-adolescence smoking social-norm p-values differ
MajorFor the same smoking coefficient of −.30, the narrative reports p = .02 but Table 6 reports p = .06.
“altering the social norm regarding substance use (B = -0.30;p = 0.02)”
“| Social norm | Smoking b | .16 | 0.24 | .09 | 0.36 | -.28 | 0.26 | -.30 | 0.06 |”
Smoking social-norm result conflicts with Table 4
MajorFor late-adolescent universal programmes, the narrative reports a significant smoking association of −.23 (p = .02), while Table 4 reports −.06 (p = .53).
“Effectiveness of universal programmes for grade 10-12 students (late adolescence) is predicted by self-control training (B = -.23;p = 0.09), adjustment of the social norm (B = -.23;p = 0.02), and peer education (B = -.74;p = 0.01).”
“| Social norm | Smoking | -.09 | 0.16 | -.08 | 0.03 | -.02 | 0.74 | -.06 | 0.53 |”
Late-adolescence alcohol and drug heterogeneity values are reversed
MajorThe narrative assigns I2 values of 85% to drug use and 44% to alcohol use; Table 3 assigns 85% to alcohol use and 44% to drug use.
“Heterogeneity was high for programmes evaluated on smoking (I 2 = 76%) and drug use (I 2 = 85%).For programmes evaluated on alcohol use, heterogeneity was between low and moderate (I 2 = 44%).”
“| Heterogeneity: I 2 -statistic | 57% | 81% | 38% | 76% | 38% | 74% | 59% | 85% | 30% | 59% | 70% | 44% |”
High-risk middle-adolescence generic-programme effect has opposite signs
MajorThe narrative reports a positive coefficient and interprets generic programmes as having less favourable smoking outcomes. Table 6 reports a negative coefficient for that age group and outcome.
“generic programmes (B = 0.29; p = 0.07)”
“| Generic programme | Smoking b | .12 | 0.27 | .05 | 0.82 | -.29 | 0.07 | - | |”
Title-screening counts leave 41 abstracts unaccounted for
MinorExcluding 3,426 of 4,801 titles leaves 1,375 records, not the 1,416 abstracts reported as screened.
Reported 1416 · recomputed 1375
“In total, 4801 titles were screened on relevance, resulting in the exclusion of 3426 records.The second step consisted of screening 1416 abstracts”
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- Authors
- Onrust, S. A., Otten, R., Lammers, J., & Smit, F.
- Affiliations
- Trimbos Institute (NL)
- Pluryn (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Onrust, Simone A.
- Venue
- Clinical Psychology Review
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-03
- Volume
- 44
- Pages
- 45-59
- ISSN
- 0272-7358 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2210098386
- Semantic Scholar
- a1198465af47a3ac451bb945f590dde2c3c493ca
- Cited by
- 262
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 26 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 40 · 2019: 25 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 4
- FWCI
- 1.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Clinical Psychology Review (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Amsterdam UMC (VU Amsterdam) - Institutional Repository (publishedVersion)
- Pure Amsterdam UMC (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Speech and Hearing › School Health and Nursing Education
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
- Keywords
- school-based prevention, substance use prevention, substance use reduction, developmental stages, age groups, adolescents, children, smoking prevention, alcohol prevention, program characteristics, intervention effectiveness
- MeSH terms
- Smoking Prevention, Adolescent, Age Factors, Alcohol Drinking, Female, Humans, Male, School Health Services, Schools, Substance-Related Disorders
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-06.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-06.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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