Costs and benefits of fat-free muscle mass in men: relationship to mating success, dietary requirements, and native immunity
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The increasing performance gap between males and females as upper body strength becomes more critical for performance is likely explained to a large extent by males having disproportionately greater strength in their upper compared to lower body, while females show the inverse.
“The increasing performance gap between males and females as upper body strength becomes more critical for performance is likely explained to a large extent by the observation that males have disproportionately greater strength in their upper compared to lower body, while females show the inverse [44, 45].”
From Transgender Women in the Female Category of Sport: Perspectives on Testosterone Suppression and Performance Advantage (2021) · cites this paper as [44]
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BackgroundInfluentialHuman adaptations for the visual assessment of strength and fighting ability from the body and face
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“(117,118,120,152,169,283,407); age of first sexual intercourse and the number of sexual partners in the past year for male subjects correlates with their amount of fat-free mass and limb muscle volume (265); and individuals who are not married rate “appearance” higher as a motive for their exercise participation than…”
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“…are most pronounced for the upper body with males on average having upper arm muscle volumes that are 78% greater than females while the difference for thigh muscle volumes was only 50% (Lassek & Gaulin 2009) and that these differences in muscle volume lead to predictable differences in strength.”
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“…direct intrasexual competition over human evolution (Puts, 2010), and have therefore evolved much greater average physical formidability than women (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009) as well as a greater willingness to risk interpersonal conflict in the pursuit and maintenance of social status (Griskevicius…”
BackgroundSexual Selection on Human Faces and Voices
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BackgroundThe Origins of Extraversion: Joint Effects of Facultative Calibration and Genetic Polymorphism
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“Second, a history of male-male aggression is revealed by pronounced sexual dimorphism in musculature, strength [23,24], and speed [25,26].”
BackgroundQuantifying the strength and form of sexual selection on men's traits
Hill, A. K., Hunt, J., Welling, L. L. M., Cárdenas, R. A., Rotella, M. A., Wheatley, J. R., Khytam Dawood, B., Shriver, M. D., & Puts, D. A. (2013) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2013.05.004 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
“These results support the notion that men's approximately 60% greater muscularity (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009) and voices approximately five standard deviations lower in pitch and timbre (Puts et al., 2012) evolved in the context of male contests (Puts, 2010).”
ResultHow Sexually Dimorphic Are Human Mate Preferences?
Conroy-Beam, D., Buss, D. M., Pham, M. N., & Shackelford, T. K. (2015) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167215590987 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
“Nonetheless, these unidimensional differences are generally considered evidence of sexual dimorphism (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009) and are comparable with, and even smaller than, the sex difference in the overall pattern of mate choice.”
ResultDoes Masculinity Matter? The Contribution of Masculine Face Shape to Male Attractiveness in Humans
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“In humans, preliminary evidence suggests there is an association between circulating testosterone levels and anatomical masculinity in faces [11], but the evidence for an association between either testosterone or masculinity and disease resistance is scant, inconsistent, and largely negative [7,12–20].”
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Can evolutionary principles explain patterns of family violence?
Archer, J. E. (2012) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0029114 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Upper-body strength predicts hunting reputation and reproductive success in Hadza hunter–gatherers
Apicella, C. L. (2014) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.07.001 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
The human anger face evolved to enhance cues of strength
Sell, A. N., Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (2014) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.05.008 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
“The last datum is relevant because numerous data sets have established that upper body strength in modern males is about 90% greater than in females (Abe, Kearns, & Fukunaga, 2003; Lassek & Gaulin, 2009), with the distributions of the two sexes only minimally overlapping.”
BackgroundThe Ancestral Logic of Politics
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Cues of upper body strength account for most of the variance in men's bodily attractiveness
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“…men have been subjected to a much a more intense evolutionary history of physical contest competition than women (Puts, 2010), which is evidenced by the fact that men have evolved to have at least 80% greater upper-body muscle strength than women on average (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009; Puts, 2010).”
BackgroundThe Science of Sex Appeal: An Evolutionary Perspective
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The relative importance of intra- and intersexual selection on human male sexually dimorphic traits
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Vocal masculinity is a robust dominance signal in men
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“In addition, objective measures of physical dominance, such as strength (Lassek and Gaulin 2009) and height (Mueller and Mazur 2001), and measures of social dominance (Chagnon 1988; Perusse 1993) predict components of mating success in contemporary populations.”
BackgroundWomen’s preferences for men’s facial masculinity are strongest under favorable ecological conditions
Marcinkowska, U. M., Rantala, M. J., Lee, A. J., Kozlov, M. V., Aavik, T., Cai, H., Contreras-Garduño, J. A., David, D., Kaminski, G., Li, N. P., et al. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-39350-8 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
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“Strength was calculated as a standardized average of handgrip strength (via pneumonic hand dynamometer) and as flexed bicep size (via tape measure): an experimentally validated proxy for overall strength [10,70,71].”
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“As the level of muscularity and masculinity—and also aggressive behavior—correlates with testosterone levels, specific facial configuration in heavyweights may be due to the effect of testosterone and other hormones affecting growth (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009).”
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“Thus, humans do show very high levels of sexual dimorphism in the parts of the postcranial musculoskeletal system that appear to be most important in fighting (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009; Puts, 2010; Carrier, 2011; Sell, Hone & Pound, 2012; Morgan & Carrier, 2013).”
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“…faster, and stronger than women (Abe, Kearns, and Fukunaga, 2003; Archer, 2004, 2009; Cardinale and Stone, 2006; Cheuvront, Carter, Deruisseau, and Moffatt, 2005; Lassek and Gaulin, 2009; Mayhew and Salm, 1990; Miller, MacDougall, Tarnopolsky, and Sale, 1993; Seiler, DeKoning, and Foster, 2007).”
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“…facts about human biology—for example, the large sex differences in muscle mass mentioned above, as well as parallel sex differences in aggressiveness (Archer, 2004)— suggest that male–male competition was probably at least as important in shaping men's traits (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009; Puts, 2010).”
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“Second, this history is revealed by pronounced sexual dimorphism in strength and related attributes (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009; Mayhew & Salm, 1990; Seiler, De Koning, & Foster, 2007).”
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“With respect to effects onmuscle mass, Lassek and Gaulin (2009) reported a positive correlation between testosterone and limb muscle volume in a large sample in the United States; furthermore, muscle mass positively predicted number of sex partners but negatively predicted measures of innate…”
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“…mate selection, Frederick and Haselton (2007) found that women preferred men who were moderately muscular, that muscular men reported having more total sex partners, more casual sex partners, and more affairs with women who had a partner at the time of the affair (see also Lassek and Gaulin, 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialSexual exploitability: observable cues and their link to sexual attraction
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“It is possible that the strength difference between men and women is so large (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009) that size and strength differences among women are irrelevant when assessing their exploitability.”
Male Facial Masculinity as a Cue to Health Outcomes
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Sex differences in political leadership in an egalitarian society
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“In terms of upper body strength, the average man is stronger than 99% of women (Lassek and Gaulin, 2009), and men are on average more likely to engage in physical combat (Daly and Wilson, 1988; Archer, 2009).”
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Sex Differences in the Perceived Dominance and Prestige of Women With and Without Cosmetics
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“Relative to this fairly modest body size dimorphism, upper body musculature and strength are highly dimorphic in humans: compared to women, men have 61% more overall muscle mass, and 90% greater upper body strength ( Lassek and Gaulin, 2009 ).”
Predictors of enhancing human physical attractiveness: Data from 93 countries
Kowal, M., Sorokowski, P., Pisanski, K., Valentová, J. V., Varella, M. A. C., Frederick, D. A., Al-Shawaf, L., García, F. E., Giammusso, I., Gjoneska, B., et al. (2022) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2022.08.003 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Fat-free muscle mass has been linked to having more sex partners (Lassek and Gaulin, 2009).”
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“…not necessarily indicate poor overall condition (because energy is finite and can be allocated in multiple ways), high physical strength is a positive indicator of being in good enough condition to invest heavily in muscle growth and maintenance (Frederick & Haselton, 2007; Lassek & Gaulin, 2009).”
Handgrip Strength as a Darwinian Fitness Indicator in Men
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“…between the sexes in terms of stature and overall body mass (Isen et al., 2014), and thus likely reflects the disproportionately higher levels of androgenic hormones (Page et al., 2005) and upper-body muscularity of men compared to women (Kallman et al., 1990; Lassek and Gaulin, 2009).”
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Average Associations Between Sexual Desire, Testosterone, and Stress in Women and Men Over Time
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“Indeed, sexual dimorphism in fat-free (muscle) mass far exceeds that for total body mass. Upperbody muscle mass is approximately 75% higher in men than women (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009).”
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“Across taxa, baseline testosterone is a major determining factor in the levels of sexual dimorphism in body size, muscle mass and other sexually discordant somatic features (Bardin & Catterall, 1981; Lassek & Gaulin, 2009).”
BackgroundPandemic Leadership: Sex Differences and Their Evolutionary–Developmental Origins
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Upper‐Body Strength and Political Egalitarianism: Twelve Conceptual Replications
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“In one of the most celebrated definitions of political science, Lasswell (1950) defined the field as the study of “who gets what, when and how.”
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“In estimating the role of male contests in humans, it is thus more appropriate to consider sexual dimorphism in fat-free mass, which is 31%–43% greater in men than in women (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009; Wells, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialEvolutionary Social Psychology
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Ein‐Dor, T., Perry‐Paldi, A., Hirschberger, G., Birnbaum, G. E., & Deutsch, D. (2014) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.08.002 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“These differences in muscularity translate into large differences in strength and speed, with the average man being stronger than 99.9% of women (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialAn Evolutionary Explanation for the Female Leadership Paradox
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“Further, moderately high male upper body muscularity is itself perceived as attractive by females (Frederick & Haselton, 2007), which may help explain why men who are more muscular report having had more sex partners (Frederick & Haselton, 2007; Lassek & Gaulin, 2009).”
BackgroundPolygyny without wealth: popularity in gift games predicts polygyny in BaYaka Pygmies
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“Strength and height have been frequently found to increase male attractiveness since they are signals of genetic quality [28–30].”
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Testing If Primal World Beliefs Reflect Experiences—Or at Least Some Experiences Identified ad hoc
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Testosterone and Immune Function in Primates: A Brief Summary with Methodological Considerations
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“…addition, testosterone concentrations were found to be negatively associated with immunoglobulin A (sIgA; Granger et al. 2000) and C-reactive protein (Lassek and Gaulin 2009; Tang et al. 2007), and positively associated with malaria parasitemia in Hondurans (Muehlenbein et al. 2005), among others.”
BackgroundShort‐term resource allocation during extensive athletic competition
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“…and attractive in popular U.S. media (Frederick, Fessler, & Haselton, 2005), are rated more attractive than other men (Dixson, Dixson, Bishop, & Parish, 2010; Frederick & Haselton, 2007; Gray & Freder-ick, 2012), and report more sex partners (Frederick & Haselton, 2007; Lassek & Gaulin, 2009).”
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Men’s Bodily Attractiveness: Muscles as Fitness Indicators
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“Accordingly, men’s upper-body strength is around 90 % greater than women’s and the average man is stronger than the vast majority of women (Hagen, & Rosenstro¨m, 2016; Lassek & Gaulin, 2009).”
Eveningness is related to men’s mating success
Randler, C., Ebenhöh, N., Fischer, A., Höchel, S., Schroff, C., Stoll, J. C., Vollmer, C., & Piffer, D. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.03.025 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
- Authors
- Lassek, W. D., & Gaulin, S. J. C.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lassek, William D.
- Venue
- Evolution and Human Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-09
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 322-328
- ISSN
- 1090-5138 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2032072020
- Semantic Scholar
- a65e9e71415eeaeced2772201a17627d162d31a5
- Cited by
- 397
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 76 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 17.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Evolution and Human Behavior (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Hormonal and reproductive studies
- Keywords
- sex differences, testosterone, mating success, sexual partners, age at first sexual intercourse, energy intake, C-reactive protein, white blood cell count, men's health
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