Retinol dehydrogenases (RDHs) in the visual cycle
Open accessAbstract
The isomerization of 11-cis retinal to all-trans retinal in photoreceptors is the first step in vision. For photoreceptors to function in constant light, the all-trans retinal must be converted back to 11-cis retinal via the enzymatic steps of the visual cycle. Within this cycle, all-trans retinal is reduced to all-trans retinol in photoreceptors and transported to the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). In the RPE, all-trans retinol is converted to 11-cis retinol, and in the final enzymatic step, 11-cis retinol is oxidized to 11-cis retinal. The first and last steps of the classical visual cycle are reduction and oxidation reactions, respectively, that utilize retinol dehydrogenase (RDH) enzymes. The visual cycle RDHs have been extensively studied, but because multiple RDHs are capable of catalyzing each step, the exact RDHs responsible for each reaction remain unknown. Within rods, RDH8 is largely responsible for the reduction of all-trans retinal with possible assistance from RDH12. retSDR1 is thought to reduce all-trans retinal in cones. In the RPE, the oxidation of 11-cis retinol is carried out by RDH5 with possible help from RDH11 and RDH10. Here, we review the characteristics of each RDH in vitro and the findings from knockout models that suggest the roles for each in the visual cycle.
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Only RDH5, RDH8, RDH10, RDH11, RDH12, RDH13, RDH14, and retSDR1 have been proven to be expressed in retina or RPE.
“In fact only RDH5, RDH8, RDH10, RDH11, RDH12, RDH13, RDH14, and retSDR1 were proven to be expressed in the retina or RPE, and their roles have been studied in the context of the visual (retinoid) cycle.68,287”
From Chemistry of the Retinoid (Visual) Cycle (2014) · cites this paper as [68]
Sections 2–5 locate the listed RDHs and retSDR1 in the retina or RPE and discuss their possible or studied roles in the visual cycle. Section 5 explicitly says RDH13 and RDH14 are expressed in the retina. The review does not establish the claim’s exclusive “only” or “proven” wording; it also says RDH13 has no known role in the classical visual cycle. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe RPE expresses key metabolic enzymes needed to produce 11-cis-retinal and is an integral part of the retinoid cycle.
“the RPE expresses key metabolic enzymes required for production of the visual chromophore, 11-cis-retinal, and thus comprises an integral part of the retinoid cycle.”
From Chemistry of the Retinoid (Visual) Cycle (2014) · cites this paper as [68]
11-cis-retinal is produced in the RPE and delivered to photoreceptors.
“The photosensitive active retinoid, 11-cis-retinal, is produced in the RPE and delivered to the photoreceptors.”
From Chemistry of the Retinoid (Visual) Cycle (2014) · cites this paper as [68]
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A mechanism for red coloration in vertebrates
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Retinyl ester hydrolases and their roles in vitamin A homeostasis
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Molecular Basis for Vitamin A Uptake and Storage in Vertebrates
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Chemistry and Biology of the Initial Steps in Vision: The Friedenwald Lecture
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“Indeed, although vertebrate rhodopsins need a retinoid cycle (11) to regenerate PSB11, melanopsins have an intrinsic light-driven chromophore regeneration function via PSBAT back-isomerization.”
BackgroundToomey, M. B., Lind, O., Frederiksen, R., Curley, R. W., Riedl, K. M., Wilby, D., Schwartz, S. J., Witt, C. C., Harrison, E. H., Roberts, N. W., et al. (2016) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.15675 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“The reduction of 3-Hydroxy-10’-apo-b -caroten-10’-al to galloxanthin is analogous to the retinol dehydrogenase-mediated reduction of all-trans retinal to all-trans retinol, which is an essential step in the visual cycle ( Parker and Crouch, 2010 ).”
BackgroundKang, M., Lee, E., Kim, Y., Kim, D. Y., Oh, H., Kim, S.-I., & Kang, Y. (2018) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu10081046 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“The visual cycle occurring between the photoreceptors and RPE regenerates 11-cis-retinal throug a series of steps involving specialized enzymes and retinoid binding proteins [18,36].”
BackgroundVitamin A derivatives as treatment options for retinal degenerative diseases
Perusek, L., & Maeda, T. (2013) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu5072646 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“This reaction yields 11-cis-retinol which further becomes oxidized by 11-cis-retinol dehydrogenase (RDH5) to 11-cis-retinal, additional dehydrogenases are also known to be involved in this oxidation including RDH11 and RDH10 (reviewed in [53]).”
BackgroundRole of Nuclear Receptors in Central Nervous System Development and Associated Diseases
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RDH12 Mutations Cause a Severe Retinal Degeneration With Relatively Spared Rod Function
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“Murine Rdh12 knockouts, however, do not show an overt retinal degeneration or major slowing of the visual cycle.(58,60,61) Redundancy of retinal dehydrogenases, specifically RDH8, has been offered as an explanation for this discrepancy or a different role of RDH12 in humans compared to the murine model.”
BackgroundTelias, M., Denlinger, B. L., Helft, Z., Thornton, C. A., Beckwith‐Cohen, B., & Krämer, R. (2019) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2019.02.015 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
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“Diffusion of atRAL from photoreceptor outer segments, the phagocytization of photoreceptor outer segments by RPE cells, and the fact that most atRAL-eliminating RDHs are found in photoreceptor cells rather than in the RPE (Parker and Crouch, 2010), can all contribute to”
BackgroundInfluentialPhang, S. J., Teh, H. X., Looi, M. L., Arumugam, B., Fauzi, M. B., & Kuppusamy, U. R. (2023) · Journal of Applied Phycology · doi:10.1007/s10811-023-02913-4 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Lastly, 11cRAL re-enters the POS and is converted into atRAL via a photo-isomerisation process, which completes the entire visual cycle (Saari 2012; Perusek and Maeda 2013).”
BackgroundA History of the Classical Visual Cycle
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Mechanisms of vitamin A metabolism and deficiency in the mammalian and fly visual system
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Self-citationGene therapy in retinal diseases: A review
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“Thus, the enzyme protects the inner segment against the excess build-up of retinaldehyde and subsequent cytotoxicity.[14] Mutation and subsequent loss of function of the gene are highly detrimental early in life, and in particular, involves the macula.”
BackgroundSundar, J. C., Munezero, D., Bryan-Haring, C., Saravanan, T., Jacques, A., & Ramamurthy, V. (2019) · Human Molecular Genetics · doi:10.1093/hmg/ddz299 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“The visual cycle begins with the reduction of all-trans retinal to all-trans retinol by NADPHdependent retinol dehydrogenase (6,8).”
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Sensor Devices Inspired by the Five Senses: A Review
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Molecular bases of rod and cone differences
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Rapid RGR-dependent visual pigment recycling is mediated by the RPE and specialized Müller glia
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“It is known that at least a portion of all-trans-retinal released from opsins undergoes reduction to retinol within the photoreceptor outer and inner segments, 38 relatively faster in cones than in rods.”
Modulation of retinoid signaling: therapeutic opportunities in organ fibrosis and repair
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Vitamin A, endocrine tissues and hormones: interplay and interactions
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“Finally, the retinol metabolite 11-cis-retinal is essential for photo-transduction in the retina (19).”
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Posttranslational Modifications of the Photoreceptor-Specific ABC Transporter ABCA4
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Retinol dehydrogenase 12 (RDH12): Role in vision, retinal disease and future perspectives
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Retinal Gene Delivery by rAAV and DNA Electroporation
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“It provides nutrients and oxygen for PRs and is involved in the visual cycle (Parker and Crouch, 2010; Wang and Kefalov, 2011).”
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Post-natal all-trans-retinoic acid biosynthesis
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Physiologie du signal visuel rétinien : de la phototransduction jusqu’au cycle visuel
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Voretigene Neparvovec and Gene Therapy for Leber’s Congenital Amaurosis: Review of Evidence to Date
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Social isolation shortens lifespan through oxidative stress in ants
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A Microparticle/Hydrogel Combination Drug-Delivery System for Sustained Release of Retinoids
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Local photoreceptor degeneration causes local pathophysiological remodeling of retinal neurons
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“The enzymatic machinery necessary for synthesizing RAL is expressed only in RPE, rods and cones, and Müller glial cells (23), but RALDH is expressed in nearly all retinal neurons (24, 25).”
BackgroundExpanding the phenotypic spectrum in RDH12-associated retinal diseasePreprint
Scott, H. A., Place, E., Ferenchak, K., Zampaglione, E., Wagner, N. E., Chao, K. R., DiTroia, S. P., Navarro-Gomez, D., Mukai, S., Huckfeldt, R. M., et al. (2020) · Molecular Case Studies · doi:10.1101/mcs.a004754 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“RDH12 and RDH8, another enzyme from the same family, convert all-trans -retinal to all-trans -retinol, which is a crucial step in the vitamin A cycle, also called the visual cycle (Haeseleer et al. 2002; Belyaeva et al. 2005; Parker and Crouch 2010).”
Eidet, J. R., Reppe, S., Pasovic, L., Olstad, O. K., Lyberg, T., Khan, A. Z., Fostad, I. G., Chen, D. F., & Utheim, T. P. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep22671 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
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Regeneration of Photopigment Is Enhanced in Mouse Cone Photoreceptors Expressing RPE65 Protein
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Self-citationThe role of retinol dehydrogenase 10 in the cone visual cycle
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RDH12 retinopathy: clinical features, biology, genetics and future directions
Varela, M. D., & Michaelides, M. (2022) · Ophthalmic Genetics · doi:10.1080/13816810.2022.2062392 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“(NADH) to oxidise retinol to retinal, and -mainly- with nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) to reduce retinal to retinol (10).”
BackgroundMelanopsin, the photopigment of intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells
Provencio, I., & Warthen, D. M. (2012) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Membrane Transport and Signalling · doi:10.1002/wmts.29 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases in the progression of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
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Flavin homeostasis in the mouse retina during aging and degeneration
Sinha, T., Makia, M. S., Du, J., Naash, M. I., & Al‐Ubaidi, M. R. (2018) · The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2018.09.003 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Additionally, the RPE’s functional activities, such as retinoid recycling and OS phagocytosis, all require high energy [63] and involve using FAD and FMN as cofactors [64].”
BackgroundRetinol dehydrogenase 13 protects the mouse retina from acute light damage.
Wang, H., Cui, X., Gu, Q., Chen, Y., Zhou, J., Kuang, Y., Wang, Z., & Xu, X. (2012) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 21 · see citing works
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“NRPE is transported by ABCA4, a photoreceptor-specific ATP-binding cassette transporter, to the cytoplasm where it is expected to undergo hydrolysis to atRAL and PE with subsequent reduction of atRAL into non-toxic all-transretinol by NADPH-dependent RDHs [12, 13].”
BackgroundChromophore supply modulates cone function and survival in retinitis pigmentosa mouse models
Xue, Y., Sun, X., Wang, S. K., Collin, G. B., Kefalov, V. J., & Cepko, C. L. (2023) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2217885120 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“RPE65 and LRAT are two critical enzymes that limit the conversion of all-trans retinol to 11-cis retinol in the RPE (39, 40), and 11-cis retinol can be further oxidized to 11-cis retinal by 11-cis RDH enzymes in the RPE (41).”
Retinol dehydrogenases: Membrane-bound enzymes for the visual function
Lhor, M., & Salesse, C. (2014) · Biochemistry and Cell Biology · doi:10.1139/bcb-2014-0082 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Chander, P., Gentleman, S., Poliakov, E., & Redmond, T. M. (2012) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m112.364596 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“RDH5 is the primary short-chain retinol dehydrogenase in RPE that oxidizes 11-cis-ROL to 11-cis-retinal (10).”
BackgroundNovel mutations in RDH5 cause fundus albipunctatus in two consanguineous Pakistani families.
Ajmal, M., Khan, M. I., Neveling, K., Khan, Y. M., Ali, S. H. B., Ahmed, W., Iqbal, M. S., Azam, M., den Hollander, A. I., Collin, R. W. J., et al. (2012) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 19 · see citing works
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“Another member of the RDH family, Rdh12, which reduces and so removes retinaldehyde available for RA synthesis [47], peaked at ZT0 at the end of the dark period (Fig.”
BackgroundInfluentialMolecular Signaling in Spermatogenesis and Male Infertility
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“At 72 h AEL, the up-regulated DEGs were involved with the nervous system [44,52], olfactory, and vision [63].”
BackgroundVitamin A and its Derivatives- Retinoic Acid and Retinoid Pharmacology
Zhu, G. (2019) · American Journal of Biomedical Science & Research · doi:10.34297/ajbsr.2019.03.000656 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“In the RPE, all-trans retinol is converted to 11cis retinol, then 11-cis retinol is oxidized to 11-cis-retinal via RDH5 with possible RDH11 and RDH11 [1].”
BackgroundInfluentialGenetic architecture of retinoic-acid signaling-associated ocular developmental defects
Nedelec, B., Rozet, J., & Taie, L. F. (2019) · Human Genetics · doi:10.1007/s00439-019-02052-2 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Recent advances in the dark adaptation investigations.
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Preclinical pharmacology of a lipophenol in a mouse model of light-induced retinopathy
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Pet Wellness and Vitamin A: A Narrative Overview
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“To maintain vision, the all-trans-retinal must convert back to 11-cis-retinal [104], a process occurring in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) behind the retina’s photoreceptor cells [103,105,106].”
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Retinoids: Mechanisms of Action in Neuronal Cell Fate Acquisition
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“RDH enzymes, on the other hand, have a more pronounced effect in optical structures [11].”
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“All trans retinoic acid (ATRA) is the bioactive form of vitamin A (Parker and Crouch 2010) that regulates target genes expression by binding to the nuclear receptors (Rochette-Egly and Germain 2009, Mic et al. 2003).”
BackgroundInfluence of Arrestin on the Photodecay of Bovine Rhodopsin
Chatterjee, D., Eckert, C. E., Slavov, C., Saxena, K., Fürtig, B., Sanders, C. R., Gurevich, V. V., Wachtveitl, J., & Schwalbe, H. (2015) · Angewandte Chemie International Edition · doi:10.1002/anie.201505798 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Exploration and detection of potential regulatory variants in refractive error GWAS
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- Authors
- Parker, R. O., & Crouch, R. K.
- Affiliations
- Medical University of South Carolina (US)
- Corresponding author
- Parker, Ryan O.
- Venue
- Experimental Eye Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2010-12
- Volume
- 91
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 788-792
- ISSN
- 0014-4835 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3065351
- OpenAlex
- W2052361452
- Cited by
- 173
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 17
- FWCI
- 0.95
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Experimental Eye Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Research to Prevent Blindness
- Medical University of South Carolina
- National Institutes of Health
- National Eye Institute (EY04939, R24EY014793, EY 14793, R01EY004939)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Retinal Development and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Retinoids in leukemia and cellular processes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Ophthalmology › Retinal Diseases and Treatments
- Keywords
- retinol dehydrogenase, visual cycle, retinal pigment epithelium, photoreceptors, knockout models
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Humans, Oxidation-Reduction, Retina, Vision, Ocular, Mice, Knockout, Retinal Dehydrogenase, Mice, Retinal Pigment Epithelium
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