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Cited by 5Archaeological and Geological StudiesAmazonian Archaeology and EthnohistoryArchaeology and ancient environmental studies

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 78 of the 78 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 55 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

Sociopolitical evolution, population clustering, and technology among early sedentary communities in northeastern Andes, Colombia

Open access
Fajardo, Sebastian, Argüello, Pedro·2024·Journal Of Anthropological Archaeology
DOI 10.1016/j.jaa.2024.101628
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Abstract

Several prehistoric societies did not develop robust hierarchical systems even after centuries of population clustering and advancements in constructing structural earthworks and crafting materials like ceramics and alloys. What social dynamics characterized these non-state complex societies and how did they influence technological production? Here we analyze population clustering and hierarchical structures through two regional settlement studies in the northeastern Andes of Colombia. Employing both a traditional Inverse Distance Weighting interpolation (IDW) approach and an unsupervised machine learning method, Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (DBSCAN), we identify settlement clusters within the pre-Columbian sedentary settlement sequence. Analyzing rank-size distribution and A -coefficients based on identified clusters, we discern differences in hierarchical systems between the two regions. Results reveal that these early sedentary communities did not establish strong settlement hierarchies over centuries of clustering. Our findings suggest that the lack of robust hierarchical systems in Muisca societies may be attributed to slow and non-linear settlement clustering and limited site specialization. We compare this with evidence for technologies in the Muisca area, arguing that the emergence of strong and permanent settlement clustering is a threshold for early communities before developing information-storage technologies, such as standardized representations for counting or writing.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This paper analyzes settlement clustering and hierarchy in two pre-Columbian sedentary regions of the northeastern Andes of Colombia, Tunja and Sogamoso, using full-coverage survey data and two clustering methods. It argues that these communities experienced slow, non-linear clustering and weak hierarchy, which may have limited the development of information-storage technologies such as standardized counting or writing.

Key findings

  • Early sedentary communities in Tunja and Sogamoso did not establish strong settlement hierarchies over centuries of clustering. Rank-size graphs were convex or primoconvex, and A coefficients ranged from 0.11 to 0.67 for IDW clusters and 0.14 to 0.37 for DBSCAN clusters.
  • There was no consistent increase in hierarchy over time. After the Herrera period in Tunja and the Early Muisca period in Sogamoso, later periods showed increases in A values, indicating decreased settlement hierarchy; differences between periods and regions were typically weakly significant.
  • Clustering was non-linear. In Tunja, DBSCAN identified 11 Herrera clusters, 18 Early Muisca clusters, and 71 Late Muisca clusters, with the largest Late Muisca cluster at 46.6 ha versus a median of 3.0 ha. In Sogamoso, DBSCAN identified 4 Herrera, 26 Early Muisca, and 26 Late Muisca clusters; the largest Early Muisca cluster was 35.4 ha.
  • Site specialization was limited. In Sogamoso, 27 collection units with at least 60% Early Muisca sherds contained 81 lithic artifacts (47 tools and 34 unused cores, flakes, and debitage), concentrated in the largest Early Muisca cluster, but production was not exclusive. Population estimates remained consistently below ten thousand for Tunja and Sogamoso and other surveyed areas in the region.

Methods

  • Full-coverage pedestrian surveys covered 277 km² in Tunja and 123 km² in Sogamoso, recording 1,630 and 604 collection units with prehispanic materials, respectively. After excluding eight surface collections, the combined dataset consisted of 2,226 unique collection units.
  • Ceramic sherds and collection unit areas were used to calculate an area-density index as a proxy for prehispanic human activity density, divided by period length to account for occupation duration.
  • Settlement clusters were identified using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) interpolation and Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (DBSCAN). Rank-size graphs and A coefficients were calculated for each period and region, with IDW and DBSCAN results compared using Mann-Whitney U tests.

Limitations

  • The paper states that prehispanic settlements lack defined spatial limits such as walls, trenches, or pits; IDW is not specifically tailored to dispersed settlements with varying shapes and struggles to identify outliers, which motivated the use of DBSCAN.
  • The paper states that systematic excavation has been limited to only a few sites at the local scale, and further studies are necessary, particularly in the central cluster in Sogamoso and surrounding valley areas.
  • The paper notes that information-storage systems may have existed in perishable materials such as wood or textiles, or in iconography, but the absence of evidence in ceramics, goldworking, textiles, and early Spanish accounts suggests they did not leave durable traces or were not widespread; future archaeological findings could alter this understanding.

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Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.jaa.2024.101628

Cites

78 of 78 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

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Verification

Claims the paper makes

0 of 55 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Early sedentary communities in the two studied regions did not establish strong settlement hierarchies over centuries of clustering.

    “Results reveal that these early sedentary communities did not establish strong settlement hierarchies over centuries of clustering.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Sherds densities and their spatial distribution often reflect permanent settlements.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Areas with more people or activity will leave more artifacts in the landscape.
    • Rests on an assumption: Changes in the area-density index can be interpreted as changes in population density across the regions.
    • Rests on an assumption: Prehispanic settlements in the Altiplano Cundiboyacense do not show defined spatial limits like walls, trenches or pits that allow their spatial separation.
    • Rests on an assumption: Resulting clusters can be interpreted as proxies of pre-Columbian human communities.
  • Findingown data

    The largest Early Muisca cluster in Tunja was located in the northeast of the survey.

    “The largest cluster of occupation during this period was located in the northeast of the survey.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The differences in A values between periods and regions typically showed weak statistical significance.

    “Moreover, the differences in A values between periods and regions typically showed weak statistical significance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    An increase in the A values produced a more pronounced convex rank size pattern in the Late Muisca period for Sogamoso (IDW A = 0.51; DBSCAN A = 0.28).

    “An increase in the A values produced a more pronounced convex rank size pattern in the Late Muisca period for Sogamoso (IDW A = 0.51; DBSCAN A = 0.28).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The largest Herrera cluster in Tunja was around seven hectares larger than the median size of cluster occupied areas.

    “This cluster was around seven hectares larger than the median size of cluster occupied areas (min = 1.3, max = 9.5, x = 3.4, median = 2.4, SD = 2.7).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 56
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 10

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    Around 37% of Early Muisca occupation was in the floodplain, while approximately 63% was on the valley slopes.

    “Around 37 % of Early Muisca occupation was in the floodplain, while approximately 63 % was on the valley slopes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Sherds densities and their spatial distribution often reflect permanent settlements.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Areas with more people or activity will leave more artifacts in the landscape.
    • Rests on an assumption: Changes in the area-density index can be interpreted as changes in population density across the regions.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Lithics in these collection units were tools (n = 47), including flake tools and a few microliths, alongside unused cores, flakes, and debitage (n = 34).

    “Lithics in these collection units were tools (n = 47), including flake tools and a few microliths, alongside unused cores, flakes, and debitage (n = 34).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Sherds densities and their spatial distribution often reflect permanent settlements.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Areas with more people or activity will leave more artifacts in the landscape.
    • Rests on an assumption: Changes in the area-density index can be interpreted as changes in population density across the regions.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The A values calculated for the DBSCAN clusters fell within the 80% confidence interval, though some instances were found within the 95% confidence interval.

    “The A values calculated for the DBSCAN clusters fell within the 80 % confidence interval, though shown from left to right for the Herrera period (black), the Early Muisca period (blue), and the Late Muisca period (red), with 95% confidence intervals following the”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Using the DBSCAN algorithm, 71 clusters were observed in the Tunja region during the Late Muisca period, with the largest cluster notably larger than the median size.

    “Using the DBSCAN algorithm, we observed 71 clusters in the Tunja region, with the largest cluster notably larger than the median size (min = 0.5, max = 46.6,x = 5.4, median = 3.0, SD = 7.4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The largest Early Muisca cluster in Tunja was approximately 12 ha larger than the median size and four hectares larger than the largest cluster in the Herrera period.

    “This cluster was approximately 12 ha larger than the median size (min = 1.4,max = 15.3, x = 4.8, median = 3.4,SD = 3.9), and four hectares larger than the largest cluster in the Herrera period.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Most of these collection units were clustered in the eastern part of the survey area, and overlapped with the largest Early Muisca settlement cluster.

    “Most of these collection units were clustered in the eastern part of the survey area, and overlapped with largest Early Muisca settlement cluster (Fig. 5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Sherds densities and their spatial distribution often reflect permanent settlements.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Areas with more people or activity will leave more artifacts in the landscape.
    • Rests on an assumption: Changes in the area-density index can be interpreted as changes in population density across the regions.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The largest Late Muisca cluster in Sogamoso continued in the same eastern location and measured around 20 ha larger than the median occupied area.

    “As in the two previous periods, the largest cluster continued in the same eastern location, and measured around 20 ha larger than the median occupied area.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The largest Herrera cluster in Sogamoso was located in the east part of the survey, around two hectares larger than the median size and about half the size of the largest Herrera cluster in Tunja.

    “The largest cluster was located in the east part of the survey, and it was around two hectares larger than the median size and about half the size of the largest Herrera cluster identified in Tunja.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In Tunja during the Late Muisca period, the DBSCAN method observed not just one large occupation area within a single cluster (maximum cluster size = 46.6 ha), but also numerous smaller clusters, surpassing the number generated by the IDW method.

    “In Tunja during the Late Muisca period, we observed with the DBSCAN method not just one large occupation area within a single cluster (maximum cluster size = 46.6 ha), but also numerous smaller clusters, surpassing the number generated by the IDW method.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The largest Early Muisca cluster in Sogamoso was located in the eastern part of the survey, at approximately the same location as the largest Herrera cluster, but around 30 ha larger.

    “The largest cluster during this period was located in the eastern part of the survey, at approximately the same location of the largest Herrera cluster, but it was around 30 ha larger.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The settlement patterns in the two regions exhibited gradual and non-linear clustering, coupled with limited site function specialization, as well as a lack of information-storage technologies.

    “Our results indicate that the settlement patterns in these two regions exhibited gradual and non-linear clustering, coupled with limited site function specialization, as well as a lack of information-storage technologies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Sherds densities and their spatial distribution often reflect permanent settlements.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Areas with more people or activity will leave more artifacts in the landscape.
    • Rests on an assumption: Changes in the area-density index can be interpreted as changes in population density across the regions.
    • Rests on an assumption: Prehispanic settlements in the Altiplano Cundiboyacense do not show defined spatial limits like walls, trenches or pits that allow their spatial separation.
    • Rests on an assumption: Resulting clusters can be interpreted as proxies of pre-Columbian human communities.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    The Herrera occupation in Tunja encompassed 52 ha, with some clustering observed in the west, center, and east of the survey area.

    “The Herrera occupation in Tunja encompassed 52 ha, with some clustering observed in the west, center, and east of the survey area.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Sherds densities and their spatial distribution often reflect permanent settlements.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Areas with more people or activity will leave more artifacts in the landscape.
    • Rests on an assumption: Changes in the area-density index can be interpreted as changes in population density across the regions.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    We covered 277 km2 in Tunja and 123 km2 in Sogamoso, recording 1630 and 604 collection units with prehispanic materials, respectively.

    “We covered 277 km 2 in Tunja and 123 km 2 in Sogamoso, recording 1630 and 604 collection units with prehispanic materials, respectively (Table 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The IDW clusters exhibit more pronounced differences and higher positive values for the A coefficient compared to the DBSCAN clusters.

    “However, the IDW clusters exhibit more pronounced differences and higher positive values for the A coefficient compared to the DBSCAN clusters.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The rank-size patterns observed during the Late Muisca period in Tunja are convex and closely resemble those identified in the Early Muisca period.

    “The rank-size patterns observed during the Late Muisca period are convex and closely resemble those identified in the Early Muisca period (Figs.6a and 5b).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The largest Late Muisca cluster in Tunja was located in the northeastern part of the survey, at the same location as the larger Early Muisca cluster, showed around 47 ha of occupied area, and was nine times and three times larger than the largest clusters in the Herrera and Early Muisca periods, respectively.

    “This cluster, located in the northeastern part of the survey and at the same location of the larger Early Muisca cluster, showed around 47 ha of occupied area and it was nine times and three times larger than the largest clusters in the Herrera and Early Muisca periods, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    The previous Herrera occupation observed in the west valley diminished, and the population shifted from this valley to the boundaries between the floodplain and slopes.

    “The previous Herrera occupation observed in the west valley diminished, and the population shifted from this valley to the boundaries between the floodplain and slopes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Sherds densities and their spatial distribution often reflect permanent settlements.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Areas with more people or activity will leave more artifacts in the landscape.
    • Rests on an assumption: Changes in the area-density index can be interpreted as changes in population density across the regions.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Most Herrera settlements in Tunja were dispersed, located in valleys and other flat areas near water streams at elevations ranging from 2700 to 2850 m.

    “However, most of the settlements were dispersed, located in valleys and other flat areas near water streams at elevations ranging from 2700 to 2850 m.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Sherds densities and their spatial distribution often reflect permanent settlements.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Areas with more people or activity will leave more artifacts in the landscape.
    • Rests on an assumption: Changes in the area-density index can be interpreted as changes in population density across the regions.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    The Late Muisca occupation in Tunja increased and reached 504 ha.

    “The Late Muisca occupation in Tunja increased and reached 504 ha.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    During the Early Muisca period, the occupation in the Sogamoso valley increased to 222 ha, as a dispersed population across the survey area with some degree of nucleation in the east, west, and northwest.

    “During the same period the occupation in the Sogamoso valley increased to 222 ha, as a dispersed population across the survey area with some degree of nucleation in the east, west, and northwest.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Sherds densities and their spatial distribution often reflect permanent settlements.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Areas with more people or activity will leave more artifacts in the landscape.
    • Rests on an assumption: Changes in the area-density index can be interpreted as changes in population density across the regions.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The largest Late Muisca cluster in Sogamoso was approximately four times larger than the largest Herrera cluster but only 65% the size of the largest Early Muisca DBSCAN cluster.

    “The largest Late Muisca cluster was approximately four times larger than the largest Herrera cluster but only 65 % the size of the largest Early Muisca DBSCAN cluster.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The analysis revealed statistically significant differences in the number of hectares of the IDW and DBSCAN clusters only for the Herrera Period in both regions, and for the Late Muisca period in Tunja.

    “The analysis revealed statistically significant differences in the number of hectares of the IDW and DBSCAN clusters only for the Herrera Period in both regions, and for the Late Muisca period in Tunja (Table 2).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The differences in the Early Muisca A values between both survey areas showed weak significance, with A falling in the 80% confidence interval.

    “The differences in the Early Muisca A values between both survey areas showed weak significance; with A falling in the 80 % confidence interval.(Figs. 6 and 7).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    In Sogamoso, Herrera settlements occupied 17 ha, mostly located in the eastern and southern parts of the survey area at an elevation of 2550 m, and they only occupied the boundaries between the floodplain and the valley slopes near perennial streams.

    “In Sogamoso, Herrera settlements occupied 17 ha, mostly located in the eastern and southern parts of the survey area at an elevation of 2550 m and they only occupied the boundaries between the floodplain and the valley slopes near perennial streams.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Sherds densities and their spatial distribution often reflect permanent settlements.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Areas with more people or activity will leave more artifacts in the landscape.
    • Rests on an assumption: Changes in the area-density index can be interpreted as changes in population density across the regions.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    Clustering in the center and east valley increased, focusing on the same area as in the previous period.

    “Clustering in the center and east valley increased, focusing on the same area as in the previous period.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Sherds densities and their spatial distribution often reflect permanent settlements.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Areas with more people or activity will leave more artifacts in the landscape.
    • Rests on an assumption: Changes in the area-density index can be interpreted as changes in population density across the regions.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In Tunja Early Muisca, IDW identified 27 clusters and DBSCAN identified 18 clusters.

    “| Early | 27 | 18 | 261 | | 0.68 | Unlikely | |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Both the DBSCAN and IDW approaches exhibited consistent general trends and similar statistical significance when applied to generate rank-size distributions.

    “Both the DBSCAN and IDW approaches exhibited consistent general trends and similar statistical significance when applied to generate ranksize distributions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Although our data indicate some evidence of specialization in the central cluster of the Sogamoso area, as evidenced by the concentration of lithic production and use from at least the Early Muisca period, the production was not exclusive and also occurred in smaller settlements in the area.

    “Although our data indicate some evidence of specialization in the central cluster of the Sogamoso area, as evidenced by the concentration of lithic production and use from at least the Early Muisca period, the production was not exclusive and also occurred in smaller settlements in the area.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    In Tunja the clusters during Late Muisca grew in the Oicatá zone, in the northeast of the survey area; this area was empty during previous periods but emerged as the largest Late Muisca center in the survey area.

    “In Tunja the clusters during Late Muisca grew in the Oicatá zone, in the northeast of the survey area.This area was empty during previous periods but emerged as the largest Late Muisca center in the survey area.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    IDW appeared to be more sensitive, particularly when dealing with smaller data samples; it tended to emphasize differences in A values more prominently and faced challenges when confronted with patterns characterized by highly amorphous geometries.

    “IDW appeared to be more sensitive, particularly when dealing with smaller data samples.It tended to emphasize differences in A values more prominently and faced challenges when confronted with patterns characterized by highly amorphous geometries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In Tunja Late Muisca, IDW identified 28 clusters and DBSCAN identified 71 clusters.

    “| Late Muisca | 28 | 71 | 1664 | <0.001 | Likely | | |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In Sogamoso Herrera, IDW identified 5 clusters and DBSCAN identified 4 clusters.

    “| Herrera | 5 | 4 | 0 | | 0.02 | Likely | |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In Sogamoso Late Muisca, IDW identified 36 clusters and DBSCAN identified 26 clusters.

    “| Late Muisca | 36 | 26 | 407 | | 0.38 | Unlikely | |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In Sogamoso Early Muisca, IDW identified 51 clusters and DBSCAN identified 26 clusters.

    “| Early | 51 | 26 | 841 | | 0.06 | Unlikely | |”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    The rank-size graph indicates the hierarchical structure of settlements, where an ideal log-normal distribution suggests a well-connected and stable system.

    “The rank-size graph further complements this by indicating the hierarchical structure of settlements, where an ideal log-normal distribution suggests a well-connected and stable system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Previous research had proposed that hierarchical systems appeared in the Northeastern Andes of Colombia only from the Early Muisca period onwards.

    “Previous research (Argüello, 2015;Fajardo, 2016;Langebaek, 1995Langebaek, , 2001) ) had proposed that such hierarchical systems appeared in the Northeastern Andes of Colombia only from the Early Muisca period onwards.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Argüello, 2015

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Fajardo, 2016

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Langebaek, 1995, 2001

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Study design and conductnone given

    This combination of clustering and distribution analysis offers insight into the stability and frequency of human interaction over time.

    “This combination of clustering and distribution analysis offers insight into the stability and frequency of human interaction over time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    These patterns may be interpreted as indicative of a weak hierarchical organization among the settlements and, consequently, within the regional human communities.

    “These patterns may be interpreted as indicative of a weak hierarchical organization among the settlements and, consequently, within the regional human communities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    Early sedentary communities relaxed the formality and frequency of face-to-face interaction to limit the emergence of increasingly complex social systems.

    “Here we argue that to limit the emergence of increasingly complex social systems, early sedentary communities relaxed the formality and frequency of face-to-face interaction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The frequency of interaction and the size of early communities influence persistent yet less complex societies.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisereasoning

    IDW is not specifically tailored to cluster dispersed settlements with varying shapes, and because it is derived from a continuous surface interpolation, it struggles to identify potential outliers.

    “However, it is not specifically tailored to cluster dispersed settlements with varying shapes, and because it is derived from a continuous surface interpolation, it struggles to identify potential outliers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The dynamics of daily face-to-face interaction and hierarchical integration in Sogamoso and Tunja did not limit the development of the technologies and networks described above, however, they did not appear to create the conditions necessary for the development or adoption of technologies for effective information processing to organize more people.

    “The dynamics of daily face-to-face interaction and hierarchical integration in Sogamoso and Tunja did not limit the development of the technologies and networks described above, however, they did not appear to create the conditions necessary for the development or adoption of technologies for effective information processing to organize more people.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Both DBSCAN and IDW are effective approaches for assessing the degree of prehispanic human interaction because they both emphasize the spatial relationships between sites, with distance being the primary constraint on communication and interaction in these premodern contexts.

    “We consider that both DBSCAN and IDW are effective approaches for assessing the degree of prehispanic human interaction because they both emphasize the spatial relationships between sites, with distance being the primary constraint on communication and interaction in these premodern contexts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    The limited integration of hierarchical settlement systems in the northeastern Andes of Colombia did not hinder the production of technologies required for goldworking, the planning and building of structural earthworks for water control, or textile production.

    “The limited integration of hierarchical settlement systems in the northeastern Andes of Colombia did not hinder the production of technologies required for goldworking (Martinón-Torres and Uribe-Villegas, 2015), the planning and building structural earthworks for water control (Boada, 2018), or textile production (Tavera and Urbina, 1994).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Martinón-Torres and Uribe-Villegas, 2015 source
    • cites Boada, 2018 source
    • cites Tavera and Urbina, 1994

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Two clustering methods were implemented to control for artifacts created by the parameters of each method.

    “Two clustering methods were implemented to control for artifacts created by the parameters of each method.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    Prehispanic settlement patterns in Tunja and Sogamoso gave rise to supra-local communities, which, at certain points during the prehispanic sequence, organized into relatively weak hierarchical settlement systems.

    “Prehispanic settlement patterns in Tunja and Sogamoso gave rise to supra-local communities, which, at certain points during the prehispanic sequence, organized into relatively weak hierarchical settlement systems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Both Tunja and Sogamoso have similar ceramic types from the Herrera, Early Muisca, and Late Muisca periods, with congruent dates, enabling feasible comparisons within the same chronological frame.

    “Both Tunja and Sogamoso have similar ceramic types from the Herrera, Early Muisca, and Late Muisca periods, with congruent dates, enabling feasible comparisons within the same chronological frame (Argüello, 2023).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Argüello, 2023

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    DBSCAN was designed to handle clusters of different shapes and sizes and to identify possible outliers.

    “Unlike IDW, DBSCAN was designed to handle clusters of different shapes and sizes and to identify possible outliers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ester et al., 1996

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This shift likely led to a reduction or relaxation in the formality and frequency of face-to-face interactions within each region.

    “This shift likely led to a reduction or relaxation in the formality and frequency of face-to-face interactions within each region.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These findings suggest that prehispanic hierarchical settlement systems likely existed, but the forces organizing them were weak, leading to limited hierarchization.

    “These findings suggest that prehispanic hierarchical settlement systems likely existed, but the forces organizing them were weak, leading to limited hierarchization.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This evidence suggests that some level of site function specialization may have existed in Sogamoso, but the economic control was never strong or steady enough for an increase in the political centralization.

    “This evidence suggest that some level of site function specialization may have existed in Sogamoso, but the economic control was never strong or steady enough for an increase in the political centralization.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    DBSCAN clustered larger areas of occupation and more accurately represented the natural break observed in the maps of occupation distribution for the Herrera, Early Muisca and Late Muisca periods in both surveys.

    “DBSCAN clustered larger areas of occupation, and more accurately represented the natural break observed in the maps of occupation distribution not only for the Herrera but also for the Early and Late Muisca period, in both surveys (Figs. 2 and 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This transition likely reduced face-to-face interactions within the regions, suggesting limited hierarchization.

    “This transition likely reduced face-to-face interactions within the regions, suggesting limited hierarchization.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    Avoiding the floodplain and location near perennial streams seem plausible explanations for clustering in Sogamoso during the Herrera period.

    “Avoiding the floodplain and location near perennial streams seem plausible explanations for clustering in Sogamoso during the Herrera period (Fajardo, 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fajardo, 2016

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    The results suggest that settlement systems had similar cluster sizes, and supra-local communities in the northern part of the northeastern Andes may have played an equitable role in demographic attraction.

    “Nevertheless, the results suggest that settlement systems had similar cluster sizes, and supra-local communities in the northern part of the northeastern Andes may have played an equitable role in demographic attraction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationcitation

    Our data and analysis complement previous findings regarding the lack of strong political centralization in smaller Muisca chiefdoms.

    “Our data and analysis complement previous findings regarding the lack of strong political centralization in smaller Muisca chiefdoms (Henderson and Ostler, 2005;Langebaek, 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Henderson and Ostler, 2005 source
    • cites Langebaek, 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The absence of such evidence, both in the material culture and in early Spanish accounts, suggests that if such systems existed, they did not leave durable traces or were not widespread technologies.

    “However, the absence of such evidence, both in the material culture (ceramics, goldworking, textiles) and in early Spanish accounts, suggests that if such systems existed, they did not leave durable traces or were not widespread technologies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    Other factors like conflict and burial sites, agricultural productivity, and raised fields were probably also at place.

    “Other factors like conflict and burial sites (Langebaek, 1995), agricultural productivity, and raised fields (Boada, 2013;Langebaek, 1995) where probably also at place.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Langebaek, 1995

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Boada, 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    This research underscores the complex dynamics of prehispanic settlement systems in the northeastern Andes, emphasizing the interplay between hierarchical organization, population clustering, and socioeconomic development, all of which contributed to the unique historical trajectory in these regions.

    “This research underscores the complex dynamics of prehispanic settlement systems in the northeastern Andes, emphasizing the interplay between hierarchical organization, population clustering, and socioeconomic development, all of which contributed to the unique historical trajectory in these regions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Low residential densification prevents productive differentiation, and in turn the low productive differentiation does not require the development of technologies useful for improving productivity.

    “Low residential densification prevents productive differentiation, and in turn the low productive differentiation does not require the development of technologies useful for improving productivity (Berrey et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Berrey et al., 2021 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Subsequent periods often saw a decrease in settlement hierarchy, accompanied by a shift towards more dispersed settlement distributions.

    “Instead, subsequent periods often saw a decrease in settlement hierarchy, accompanied by a shift towards more dispersed settlement distributions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Simultaneously, it likely elevated the level of integration within a broader macro-regional interaction system, with a central hub positioned outside the Sogamoso valley.

    “Simultaneously, it likely elevated the level of integration within a broader macro-regional interaction system, with a central hub positioned outside the Sogamoso valley.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This could indicate that this place had a residential purpose but permanent occupation was not its main purpose; rather the main function was burial of people living in the valley.

    “This could indicate that this place had a residential purpose but permanent occupation was not its main purpose.Rather the main function was burial of people living in the valley.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationreasoning

    It might be required to establish a strong and permanent settlement clustering and settlement hierarchies that exhibit rank-size patterns tending towards primate distributions.

    “First, it might be required to establish a strong and permanent settlement clustering and settlement hierarchies that exhibit rank-size patterns tending towards primate distributions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
63 of 63

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The parameters that enable the evolution of such cognitive systems remain unclear.

    “However, the parameters that enable the evolution of such cognitive systems remain unclear.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The dynamics of the emergence of such systems in early sedentary communities remain unclear.

    “The dynamics of the emergence of such systems in early sedentary communities remain unclear”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Sherds densities and their spatial distribution often reflect permanent settlements.

    “We assumed that sherds densities and their spatial distribution often reflect permanent settlements.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Areas with more people or activity will leave more artifacts in the landscape.

    “This assumes that areas with more people or activity will leave more artifacts in the landscape.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Changes in the area-density index can be interpreted as changes in population density across the regions.

    “Changes in the area-density index were interpreted as changes in population density across the regions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Prehispanic settlements in the Altiplano Cundiboyacense do not show defined spatial limits like walls, trenches or pits that allow their spatial separation.

    “Prehispanic settlements in the Altiplano Cundiboyacense do not show defined spatial limits like walls, trenches or pits that allow their spatial separation.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Resulting clusters can be interpreted as proxies of pre-Columbian human communities.

    “Resulting clusters were interpreted as proxies of pre-Columbian human communities.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Pre-Columbian settlements are often dispersed and lack distinct permanent features such as earthworks or surface constructions.

    “These limitations are particularly relevant in the context of northwestern South America because pre-Columbian settlements are often dispersed and lack distinct permanent features such as earthworks or surface constructions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The frequency of interaction and the size of early communities influence persistent yet less complex societies.

    “Two factors that have been argued to influence these persistent yet less complex societies are the frequency of interaction and the size of early communities.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Several early sedentary communities never grow into larger, sociopolitically more complex societies yet persist through time with adaptability and flexibility.

    “Nevertheless, several of these early sedentary communities never grow into larger, sociopolitically more complex societies yet persist through time with adaptability and flexibility.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The archaeological survey data and clustering methods reliably reflect past settlement patterns and population clustering.

    “The settlement data indicated that population clustering did occur during the whole sequence in both regions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The absence of durable evidence for information storage technologies in the archaeological record and early Spanish accounts indicates that such technologies were absent or not widespread.

    “However, the absence of such evidence, both in the material culture (ceramics, goldworking, textiles) and in early Spanish accounts, suggests that if such systems existed, they did not leave durable traces or were not widespread technologies.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The two surveyed areas are representative of the northeastern Andes for generalizing about prehispanic settlement systems.

    “Our study provides archaeological evidence from two of the largest chiefdoms described by the Spaniards upon their arrival in the eastern highlands of Colombia.”
13 of 13

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Late Muisca cluster was about five times, not nine times, the Herrera maximum

    Major

    The largest Late Muisca cluster in Tunja was 46.6 ha, compared with 9.5 ha for the largest Herrera cluster. That is about 4.9 times as large, not nine times.

    Reported 9 · recomputed 4.905263

  • The stated IDW A-coefficient range excludes a reported value

    Minor

    The paper gives 0.11 as the lowest IDW A coefficient, but later reports an IDW A coefficient of 0.04 for Herrera-period Tunja.

  • IDW A coefficients are not higher in every period and region

    Minor

    Contrary to the blanket comparison, Herrera-period Tunja has a lower IDW A value than DBSCAN A value (0.04 versus 0.27).

  • Early Muisca maximum exceeds the Herrera maximum by 5.8 ha, not four

    Minor

    The reported maxima for Tunja are 15.3 ha in the Early Muisca period and 9.5 ha in the Herrera period. Their difference is 5.8 ha, rather than four hectares.

    Reported 4 · recomputed 5.8

  • Previously empty area conflicts with the stated location of the earlier cluster

    Minor

    The discussion says the northeastern area containing Tunja's largest Late Muisca center was empty in previous periods. The results instead place that cluster at the same location as the larger Early Muisca cluster.

5 of 5

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 15

  1. Argüello, P., 2009. El contexto sociopolítico de las fiestas y ceremonias prehispánicas en los Andes orientales de Colombia. In: Sánchez, C. (Ed.), Economía, Prestigio y Poder. Perspectivas desde la arqueología. Instituto Colombiano de Antropología e Historia, Bogotá, pp. 42-73.
  2. Argüello, P., 2015. Subsistence Economy and Chiefdom Emergence in the Muisca Area. A Study of the Valle de Tena, PhD Thesis, Department of Anthropology. University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh.
  3. Benitez, C., Castellanos, D., 2017. Prestigio y control de recursos en los pobladores del sitio INCITEMA, Cercado Grande de los Santuarios, Tunja, Boyacá, Undergraduate Thesis, Escuela de Ciencias Sociales. Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia, Tunja.
  4. Cardale de Schrimpff, 1987, En busca de los primeros agricultores del altiplano cundiboyacense, Maguaré, 5, 99
  5. Drennan, R., 2006. Field methods and data base. In: Drennan, R. (Ed.), Prehispanic Chiefdoms in the Valle de la Plata, Vol. 5: Regional Settlement Patterns. University of Pittsburgh, Universidad de los Andes, Pittsburgh, Bogotá, pp. 13–27.
  6. Drennan, R., Quattrin, D., Peterson, C. 2006. Distributional Patterns; Resources, Communities, and Polities, in: Drennan, R. (Ed.), Prehispanic Chiefdoms in the Valle de la Plata, Vol. 5: Regional Settlement Patterns. University of Pittsburgh, Universidad de los Andes, Pittsburgh, Bogotá, pp. 99–153.
  7. Drennan, 2006, 5, 59
  8. Fajardo, S., 2016. Prehispanic and Colonial Settlement Patterns of the Sogamoso Valley, PhD Thesis, Department of Anthropology. University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh.
  9. Hutchins, 2000, Distributed cognition. International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences, Elsevier Sci., 138, 1
  10. Langebaek, 1991, Highland center and foothill periphery in 16th-century Eastern Colombia, Res. Econ. Anthropol., 13, 325
  11. Martín, 2017, Population nucleation and functional interdependence in prehistoric coastal Ecuador, Soc. Evol. Hist., 16, 20
  12. Romano, F., (2018). Trabajos de campo. In: Argüello, P. (Ed.), Nueva Esperanza. 2000 años de historia de una comunidad prehispánica en el Altiplano Cundiboyacense. UPTC-CODENSA S.A.-EPM, Tunja, pp. 35 – 56.
  13. Salamanca, M., 2000. Asentamientos tempranos en el Valle de Sáchica, Boyacá, Undergraduate Thesis, Departamento de Antropología, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá.
  14. Silva, 1945, Sobre antropología chibcha, Boletín Arqueológico, 1, 531
  15. Zorro, C., 2019. La ocupación humana del Altiplano Cundibyacense en el periodo precerámico: una aproximación desde la Zooarqueología, Undergraduate Thesis, Departamento de Antropología, Universidad de Los Andes, Bogotá.

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Related

Metadata

Authors
Fajardo, S., & Argüello, P.
Affiliations
Leiden University (NL)
Corresponding author
Fajardo, Sebastian
ORCID
Fajardo, Sebastian
Venue
Journal Of Anthropological Archaeology
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2024-12
Volume
76
Pages
101628
ISSN
0278-4165 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.jaa.2024.101628
OpenAlex
W4403204136
Semantic Scholar
f4d5d66b3434a98749f56676210862412b2b3349
Cited by
4
References
77
Citations by year
2026: 3 · 2024: 1
FWCI
5.60
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Anthropological Archaeology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • SSRN Electronic Journal (acceptedVersion)
  • Leiden Repository (Leiden University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
  • National Science Foundation (1338883)
  • Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Archaeological and Geological Studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Amazonian Archaeology and Ethnohistory
  • Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
Keywords
prehistoric settlement patterns, population clustering, settlement hierarchy, Muisca, rank-size distribution, DBSCAN, inverse distance weighting, social complexity, technological progress

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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