Cited by 634COVID-19 and Mental HealthMaternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and PostpartumMental Health Treatment and Access

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Psychological impact of COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines

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Tee, Michael L., Tee, Cherica A., Anlacan, Joseph P., Aligam, Katrina Joy G., Reyes, Patrick Wincy C., Kuruchittham, Vipat, Ho, Roger C.·2020·Journal of Affective Disorders

DOI 10.1016/j.jad.2020.08.043PMC PMC7444468

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Abstract

Background The 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic poses a threat to societies' mental health. This study examined the prevalence of psychiatric symptoms and identified the factors contributing to psychological impact in the Philippines.Methods A total of 1879 completed online surveys were gathered from March 28-April 12, 2020. Collected data included socio-demographics, health status, contact history, COVID-19 knowledge and concerns, precautionary measures, information needs, the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-21) and the Impact of Events Scale-Revised (IES-R) ratings.Results The IES-R mean score was 19.57 (SD=13.12) while the DASS-21 mean score was 25.94 (SD=20.59). In total, 16.3% of respondents rated the psychological impact of the outbreak as moderate-to-severe; 16.9% reported moderate-to-severe depressive symptoms; 28.8% had moderate-to-severe anxiety levels; and 13.4% had moderate-to-severe stress levels. Female gender; youth age; single status; students; specific symptoms; recent imposed quarantine; prolonged home-stay; and reports of poor health status, unnecessary worry, concerns for family members, and discrimination were significantly associated with greater psychological impact of the pandemic and higher levels of stress, anxiety and depression (p<0.05). Adequate health information, having grown-up children, perception of good health status and confidence in doctors' abilities were significantly associated with lesser psychological impact of the pandemic and lower levels of stress, anxiety and depression (p<0.05).Limitations An English online survey was used.Conclusion During the early phase of the pandemic in the Philippines, one-fourth of respondents reported moderate-to-severe anxiety and one-sixth reported moderate-to-severe depression and psychological impact. The factors identified can be used to devise effective psychological support strategies.

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Mediboina, A., & Bhupathi, M. (2023) · International Journal of Medical Students · doi:10.5195/ijms.2023.1981 · Cited by 3
Lacking Communication Would Increase General Symptom Index Scores of Medical Team Members During COVID-19 Pandemic in China: A Retrospective Cohort Study
Zhang, J., Fang, Y., Lu, Z., Chen, X., Hong, N., & Wang, C. (2021) · INQUIRY The Journal of Health Care Organization Provision and Financing · doi:10.1177/0046958021997344 · Cited by 3
Simultaneous occurrence of a Takotsubo syndrome and paranoia delirium, related to Covid‐19 pandemic: A case report
Ammar, H. B., Bouguira, E., Brahmi, L., Hamdi, G., Bouallagui, A., Khelifa, E., & Mnif, L. (2021) · Clinical Case Reports · doi:10.1002/ccr3.5026 · Cited by 3
Beyond prioritization: Challenges to the COVID-19 vaccination of people with mental disorders in the Philippines
Alibudbud, R. C. (2021) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2021.102954 · Cited by 3
“Moreover, the higher rates of mental health problems during the pandemic may also increase the demand for psychiatric services which may already be in short supply (Tee et al., 2020).”
Background
Stress and the impact of stressful events are lesser among raja yoga meditators – A cross sectional study during COVID-19 pandemic from India
Madhu, S., Govindaraj, R., Kumar, P., & Chandra, S. (2022) · Clinical eHealth · doi:10.1016/j.ceh.2022.07.001 · Cited by 3
“Both the scales were validated in the study that examined the psychological health of general population in Philippines [33].”
Method
Effect of Increased Corticosterone Levels Due to Chronic Stress on Body Weight Changes in Rattus norvegicus
Primindari, R. S., Rohmah, A. N., & Irawan, D. D. (2022) · MAGNA MEDICA Berkala Ilmiah Kedokteran dan Kesehatan · doi:10.26714/magnamed.9.2.2022.80-88 · Cited by 2
“Effect of Increased Corticisterone Levels Due to Chronic Stress on Bodyweight Changes in Rattus norvegicus 9 (2) August 2022 Research Article”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
The pathways from perceived discrimination to self-rated health among the Chinese diaspora during the COVID-19 pandemic: investigation of the roles of depression, anxiety, and social supportPreprint
Chen, Y., Wang, Z., Dong, W., Xu, J., Wu, S. J., Zhang, X., & Chen, C. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-433108/v1 · Cited by 3
School health policies and their implementation during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines
Salanguit, M. B., Santillan, M. D. C., Gregorio, E. R., Estrada, C. A. M., Shibuya, F., Nishio, A., & Kobayashi, J. (2024) · Tropical Medicine and Health · doi:10.1186/s41182-024-00659-4 · Cited by 2
“In terms of its mental health effects, studies have shown that the general population had increased levels of distress and symptoms of depression and anxiety during the early stages of the pandemic [3, 4].”
Impact of emerging COVID-19 variants on psychosocial health: A systematic review
Kumar, P., Sarkar, M., Femenías, Y. M., Gnanaraj, R., Martinez, D., Pisfil-Farroñay, Y., Chaudhary, L., Agrawal, P., Kaushal, G. P., Mbwogge, M., et al. (2025) · Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care · doi:10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_606_24 · Cited by 3
“Tee ML et al. [28] Cross‑sectional study design. adult population, March to April 2020. psychological impact of the pandemic with higher levels of stress, anxiety, and depression.”
Levels of depression, anxiety, and stress among emerging adults in the Philippines: an exploratory spatial analysis
Regencia, Z. J. G., Marteja, V. T., & Baja, E. S. (2025) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdaf024 · Cited by 3
A Pre-Registered Examination of the Relationship Between Personality, Stress, and Academic Cheating in the Age of Online Learning
Mungall, L. R., Fazaa, G. R., & Blais, J. (2025) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941251379435 · Cited by 3
A Journey Back Home: Lived Experience of the Returning Overseas Filipinos in a 14-Day Quarantine Facility
Estrellado, C. J. P., Arcinas, M. M., BUNYI, M. V., & Cornelio, J. S. (2021) · International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences · doi:10.26803/ijhss.13.1.3 · Cited by 2
The relationship between social support and psychological well-being of college students during Covid-19 pandemic
Alza, N., Armalita, R., & Puspasari, D. (2021) · International Journal of Research in Counseling and Education · doi:10.24036/00445za0002 · Cited by 2
Social Determinants of Alcohol Use Disorder, Depression, and Anxiety Among Sexual Minority Males During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Alibudbud, R. C. (2022) · Pertanika journal of social science & humanities · doi:10.47836/pjssh.30.3.14 · Cited by 2
“Notably, alcohol use can induce relaxation by affecting brain function and receptors (Sadock et al., 2015; Tee et al., 2020).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Daily Association between COVID-19 cases and parents’ emotions: the role of marital relationship quality
Chiang, S., & Chen, W. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03602-0 · Cited by 3
Participating as a research team during the COVID-19 pandemic benefits mental health of undergraduate medical students in Brazil
Calderaro, D. C., Teodoro, M. L. M., Basualto, S., Borges, A. R., Lopes, J. V. Z., Araújo, N. C., Mariz, H. D. A., Valadares, L. D. D. A., Ribeiro, S. L. E., Kahlow, B. S., et al. (2022) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2022.2141280 · Cited by 5
“The other variables associated with worse mental health (higher DASS21): younger ages (Stanton et al., 2020; Tee et al., 2020), female gender (Moutinho et al.”
BackgroundInfluential
“Hello, can you hear me?”: Narratives of online mental health counselling among Filipino adults during the pandemic
Cruz, E. N. M. D., Marcelo, R. C. A., Naling, B. Y. M., & Ty, W. E. G. (2022) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12592 · Cited by 4
The Relationship between Capital Domains and Resilience in Facing the COVID-19 Pandemic in Indonesia
Hargono, A., Dwirahmadi, F., Artanti, K. D., Astutik, E., Sari, S. S. N., & Febriyanti, F. (2023) · Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences · doi:10.4314/ejhs.v33i3.2 · Cited by 2
“Communities lacking good resilience faced exacerbated conditions such as mental health problems (3).”
Background
Physical discomforts, feeling of the high work intensity and the related risk factors of the frontline medical staff during COVID-19 epidemic: an early-outbreak, national survey in China
Jia, L., Ye, M., Wang, H., & Wang, H. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1270366 · Cited by 2
“During the early phase of the pandemic in the Philippines, one-fourth of respondents reported moderate-to-severe anxiety and one-sixth reported moderate-to-severe depression and psychological impact (34).”
Background
Long Story Short, I Survived: An Exploration of the Meaning-making Stories of Suicide Attempt Survivors
Culajara, C. L. B. (2023) · Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies · doi:10.9734/ajess/2023/v49i31130 · Cited by 2
Study on the Synergistic Effect of Chaihu Shugan San and Liuzijue in Treating Depression: Traditional Chinese Medicine Formula
Zeng, W., Jiang, J., & Wu, F. (2023) · Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences · doi:10.36468/pharmaceutical-sciences.spl.809 · Cited by 2
Embodied Resilience: A Phenomenological Inquiry into the Reintegration Struggles and Triumphs of Transnational Mothers Amidst the COVID-19 Pandemic
Lanada, J. P. (2024) · The Family Journal · doi:10.1177/10664807241226700 · Cited by 2
“A study conducted by Tee et al. (2020), participants revealed several psychosocial dif ﬁ culties that they were facing due to the pandemic.”
Background
Mediating effect of adaptive coping between perceived social support and treatment motivation among mental health clients during the Covid-19 pandemic
Engay, J. M. A., & Manda, A. R. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2024.100747 · Cited by 2
Worker experience a year into COVID: Job demands and resources in the Philippines
(2024) · Philippine Journal of Psychology · doi:10.31710/pjp/0055.02 · Cited by 2
Disentangling Police-recorded Crime Change in Hong Kong amid the COVID-19 pandemic
Siu, J. C. L. (2024) · International journal of law, crime and justice · doi:10.1016/j.ijlcj.2024.100653 · Cited by 2
School reopening concerns amid a pandemic among higher education students: a developing country perspective for policy development
Garcia, M. B. (2024) · Educational Research for Policy and Practice · doi:10.1007/s10671-024-09366-7 · Cited by 2
“Compared to their employed counterparts, students experienced greater psychological impact as well as more stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms (Tee et al., 2020).”
The psychological implications of COVID-19 over the eighteen-month time span following the virus breakout in Italy
Ropi, I., Lillo, M., Malavasi, M., Argentieri, A., Barbieri, A., Lou, B., Barbieri, D. M., & Passavanti, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1363922 · Cited by 3
“These assessments were validated versions drawn from prior international research (Chew et al., 2020; Conversano et al., 2020; Dawson and Golijani-Moghaddam, 2020; Tee et al., 2020; Umucu and Lee, 2020; Yao, 2020; Yan et al., 2021).”
BackgroundMethod
The state of mental health publications in the Philippines from 1996 to 2022 and its comparison with the ASEAN region
Alibudbud, R. C. (2024) · International Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/00207411.2024.2377784 · Cited by 2
“Those at higher risk included females, the youth, and individuals who were quarantined or had prolonged stays at their homes (Tee et al., 2021).”
Sexual Orientation Disparities in Adulting: Emerging Adulthood Markers, Depression and Anxiety among Filipino Heterosexual and Sexual Minority Women
Cleofas, J. V., & Abesamis, L. E. A. (2024) · Sexuality & Culture · doi:10.1007/s12119-024-10259-3 · Cited by 2
“This corroborates with global (COVID-19 Mental Disorders Collaborators, 2021) and local evidence (Tee et al., 2020) that demonstrates the persisting mental health burden experienced by women during the pandemic.”
Quality of sleep after COVID-19 infection: a cross-sectional study in the Southern Italy
Sansone, V., Angelillo, S., Paduano, G., Pileggi, C., Nobile, C. G. A., & Giuseppe, G. D. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1428423 · Cited by 2
Effects of COVID-19 Pandemic on Adolescents’ Mental Health Based on Coping Behavior - Statistical Perspective
Jabarali, A. K., & Williams, J. W. (2024) · Advances in Data Science and Adaptive Analysis · doi:10.1142/s2424922x24500037 · Cited by 3
Psychological distress and coping strategies among Indonesian psychologists during the COVID-19 pandemic: a two-wave cross-lagged study
Abidin, F. A., Prathama, A. G., Fitriana, E., Komala, E. S., & Tijdink, J. K. (2025) · Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/21642850.2025.2456662 · Cited by 3
“Nonetheless, our results align with existing research indicating that younger individuals experience higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress during such crises (Hudan et al., 2022; Mautong et al., 2021; Seco Ferreira et al., 2020; Tee et al., 2020).”
Integrated Online Scheduling System for Church Services with SMS Notification and QR Code Recognition
Aguilar, M. R. B., Betonio, G. Y. M., Chan, K. C. L., Albina, E. M., & Caballero, A. R. (2024) · International Conference on Business and Industrial Research (ICBIR) · doi:10.1109/icbir61386.2024.10875795 · Cited by 2
Assessment of community-based resilience to malaria in two transmission settings in Western Burkina Faso
Millogo, A. A., Yaméogo, L., Toe, L. P., Zerbo, R., Ouédraogo, F., & Diabaté, A. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-21977-0 · Cited by 3
“Evidence suggests that access to accurate health information is critical for reducing the psychological impact of health crises, including stress, anxiety, and depression [20].”
Implication of social isolation on mental health during the Covid-19 pandemic: a look at its religious and spiritual coping
Gohar, A., de Carvalho, A. B., & Brandão, C. D. F. (2021) · Revista on line de Política e Gestão Educacional · doi:10.22633/rpge.v25iesp.4.15941 · Cited by 2
English Language Apprehension and the Reading-Writing Competence of Students
Baful, R., & Derequito, C. M. (2022) · The International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Invention · doi:10.18535/ijsshi/v9i02.01 · Cited by 2
“A recent study on the psychological consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic conducted by Tee et al. (2020) in the Philippines revealed that learners indicated a moderate-to-severe pandemic effect on their mental health.”
Background
Factors related to depression in older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic in two coastal regions of Peru: An analytical cross-sectional study
Sáenz, E. D. J. Q., Carrillo, J. F. S., Rivera‐Lozada, O., & Bonilla-Asalde, C. A. (2022) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.70655.2 · Cited by 2
Impacts of COVID-19 Pandemic on Mental Health Condition of PnC Engineering Students: A Basis for Development of Intervention Program Using DMADV
Armando, J. D., Fiedacan, G. A., Olmedo, P. J. D., Sevilleno, J. C. D., Usaraga, M. P., Vanguardia, S. C., Beano, M. G. P., Domingo, B. B., Parondo, M. M., & Nieva, V. I. M. (2021) · IEEE International Conference on Humanoid, Nanotechnology, Information Technology, Communication and Control, Environment, and Management (HNICEM) · doi:10.1109/hnicem54116.2021.9731870 · Cited by 2
“It was determined in the month of December, 2019 and was declared as a global pandemic by World Health Organization (WHO) in the month of March, 2020 [2].”
Background
Direct Saliva versus Conventional Nasopharyngeal Swab qRT-PCR to Diagnose SARS – CoV2: Validity Study
Tee, M. L., Rosell-Ubial, P. J. B., Rañoa, D. R. E., Tee, C., Abrilla, A. A., Trinidad, L. J. P. L., Chiong, C. M., Berba, R. P., Carrillo, R. J. D., Lim, M. C. F., et al. (2021) · Asian Journal of Research in Infectious Diseases · doi:10.9734/ajrid/2021/v6i230193 · Cited by 2
“Specifically, being quarantined by health authorities was found to be associated with moderate to severe adverse psychological impact as well as depression, anxiety and stress [20].”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Psychology of the Pharmacy School Stakeholders in Türkiye
ÇALIKUŞU, M., & Özçelikay, G. (2021) · Turkish Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences · doi:10.4274/tjps.galenos.2021.68726 · Cited by 2
“32 33-37 It was also determined in our study that female academicians had a significantly higher ( p =0.001) PA level than male academicians.”
Influential
ROLE OF SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH IN PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS AND READINESS FOR ONLINE LEARNING AMONG COLLEGE FILIPINO STUDENTS DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC: A PILOT STUDY
Pusta, R. J. (2022) · International Journal of Teaching and Learning · doi:10.17501/26827034.2021.1102 · Cited by 2
Association of COVID19-affected Mental Health with Menstrual Abnormalities among University Students: A cross sectional study from Pakistan
Samo, A. A., Baig, N. M., Sayed, R. B., Sohail, A., Usman, F., Abbas, S. J., Khan, T. I., & Laghari, Z. A. (2021) · BioSight · doi:10.46568/bios.v2i2.55 · Cited by 2
“Several studies have reported COVID19 related increased in depression, anxiety, stress, changes in sleep patterns, generalized anxiety disorder, bereavement, isolation, making females more vulnerable to such pandemic related problems[4-8] Psychological factors may affect reproductive health of females[9] Previously co…”
Background
The Relationship Between Anxiety and Perceived Social Support at the Initial Stage of Covid-19 Outbreak
Güloğlu, B. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.14744/phd.2021.52386 · Cited by 3
Impaired Perceptions and Conspiracy Beliefs about the Way of Emergence of the COVID-19 Infection
Fenercioğlu, A. K., Can, G., Sipahioğlu, N. T., Demir, O., Güllüoğlu, S., Gedik, I., Altintas, G. E., Cosgun, A., & Gurcan, Z. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19095557 · Cited by 2
“It is the largest epidemic after the influenza pandemic of 1918, which affected one-third of the world’s population and killed 50 million people [7].”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Factors related to depression in older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic in two coastal regions of Peru: An analytical cross-sectional study
Sáenz, E. D. J. Q., Carrillo, J. F. S., Rivera‐Lozada, O., & Bonilla-Asalde, C. A. (2022) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.70655.3 · Cited by 2
“During the COVID-19 pandemic, these similarities continued, and they are even being identified as the strongest predictor of post-traumatic stress symptoms after pandemics.(29,32,44) This is in agreement with our findings, where 61.”
Result
Mental Health Status of French School-Aged Children’s Parents during the COVID-19 Lockdown and Its Associated Factors
Bourion-Bédès, S., Rousseau, H., Batt, M., Tarquinio, P., Lebreuilly, R., Sorsana, C., Legrand, K., Machane, R., Tarquinio, C., & Baumann, C. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191710999 · Cited by 3
“However, previously divergent findings were reported during the pandemic: some studies showed that the female sex was associated with a high level of anxiety [36,37], while others indicated that males and females experienced similar levels of stress, anxiety and negative emotions [3,38,39].”
Result

Authors: Tee, M. L., Tee, C. A., Anlacan, J. P., Aligam, K. J. G., Reyes, P. W. C., Kuruchittham, V., & Ho, R. C.
Affiliations: University of the Philippines Manila (PH)
University of the Philippines Diliman (PH)
Southeast Asia One Health University Network (TH)
National University of Singapore (SG)
Corresponding author: Tee, Michael L.
Tee, Cherica A.
ORCID: Tee, Michael L.
Tee, Cherica A.
Anlacan, Joseph P.
Aligam, Katrina Joy G.
Reyes, Patrick Wincy C.
Kuruchittham, Vipat
Ho, Roger C.
Venue: Journal of Affective Disorders
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2020-12
Volume: 277
Pages: 379-391
ISSN: 0165-0327 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2020.08.043
PMC: PMC7444468
OpenAlex: W3080207218
Cited by: 634
References: 24
Citations by year: 2026: 14 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 127 · 2022: 185 · 2021: 185 · 2020: 22
FWCI: 51.94
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Affective Disorders (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Rare & Special e-Zone (The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic, psychological impact, depression, anxiety, stress, psychiatric symptoms, quarantine, home confinement, health information, perceived discrimination, psychological support, Philippines
MeSH terms: Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Anxiety, Child, Depression, Female, Health Personnel, Health Status, Humans, Male, Mental Health, Middle Aged, Philippines, Pneumonia, Viral, Surveys and Questionnaires, Sex Factors, Single Person, Stress, Psychological, Students, Prevalence, Coronavirus Infections, Young Adult, Pandemics

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Psychological impact of COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines

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