Cited by 2,263Psychometric Methodologies and TestingStatistical Methods and Bayesian InferenceStatistical Methods and Applications

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Structural equations modeling: Fit Indices, sample size, and advanced topics

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Iacobucci, Dawn·2010·Journal of Consumer Psychology

DOI 10.1016/j.jcps.2009.09.003

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Abstract

This article is the second of two parts intended to serve as a primer for structural equations models for the behavioral researcher. The first article introduced the basics: the measurement model, the structural model, and the combined, full structural equations model. In this second article, advanced issues are addressed, including fit indices and sample size, moderators, longitudinal data, mediation, and so forth.

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Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives
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Method
Consumer motivations for engaging with corporate social responsibility on social media
Aguirre, C., de Maya, S. R., Vidal, M. P., & Rodríguez, A. (2023) · Spanish Journal of Marketing-ESIC · doi:10.1108/sjme-05-2022-0106 · Cited by 19
Waking up to digital innovation: how organisational secrecy hampers top management focus on strategic renewal
Schildt, H., Lahdenranta, K., Demir, R., & Turunen, T. (2023) · The Innovation · doi:10.1080/14479338.2022.2162530 · Cited by 19
“Overall, the CFA models show a good fit in that χ2 adjusted by the degrees of freedom is well below the recommended level of 3.0 (Iacobucci, 2010) in all models.”
Influential
What Affects Safety Perception of Female Ride‐Hailing Passengers? An Empirical Study in China Context
Yang, Y., Hu, S., Liao, D.-L., & Huang, X. (2022) · Journal of Advanced Transportation · doi:10.1155/2022/3316535 · Cited by 19
“According to Dawn [54], a maximum-likelihood estimation provided in SEM is adapted to re ﬂ ect how likely independent variable observations are to predict dependent variable observations.”
Influential
Factors Affecting Farmers’ Adoption of Flood Adaptation Strategies Using Structural Equation Modeling
Faruk, M. O., & Maharjan, K. L. (2022) · Water · doi:10.3390/w14193080 · Cited by 19
“SEM provides for the assessment of linkages in a proposed mediation process (Figure 1), as well as the direct effect of the predictor variables on the outcome and the mediation effect, which describes how an exogenous variable affects the outcome variable through the mediator [55].”
Background
What drives low-carbon agriculture? The experience of farms from the Wielkopolska region in Poland
Borychowski, M., Grzelak, A., & Popławski, Ł. (2021) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-021-17022-3 · Cited by 27
“In such a model, every hypothesized connection should be logically justified, and there must be a coherent story behind the entire model (Iacobucci 2010).”
Background
Determinants of Smart City Commitment among Citizens from a Middle City in Argentina
Alderete, M. (2021) · Smart Cities · doi:10.3390/smartcities4030059 · Cited by 19
A socio-cognitive approach to leading a learning project team: A proposed model and scale development
Chang, A., Wiewiora, A. M., & Liu, Y. (2021) · International Journal of Project Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2021.05.003 · Cited by 32
Achieving customers’ repurchase intention through stimuli and site attachment
Prodanova, J., Gutiérrez, S. S. M., & Jiménez, N. (2020) · Journal of Organizational Computing and Electronic Commerce · doi:10.1080/10919392.2020.1739395 · Cited by 23
“A post hoc test of the appropriateness of the sample size obtained for the study of the proposed model (Faul et al. 2007; Iacobucci 2010) relied on a power analysis with G*Power software (GPowerWin_3.”
Method
Pedagogical Approaches in the Knowledge Society: The Flipped Classroom Method for the Development of Creativity and Dialogical Learning
Díaz, I. A., Lucena, F. J. H., Reche, M. P. C., & Rodríguez, J. M. R. (2020) · International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET) · doi:10.3991/ijet.v15i03.11664 · Cited by 31
“On the other hand, the SEM allowed establishment of the covariance and correlation between items [30, 31].”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Understanding self-efficacy and performance of salespersons in Islamic banking
Kaakeh, A., Hassan, M., Van-Hemmen, S., & Hossain, I. (2020) · Journal of Islamic accounting and business research · doi:10.1108/jiabr-10-2018-0160 · Cited by 19
A Positive Relationship between Cognitive Reserve and Cognitive Function after Stroke: Dynamic Proxies Correlate Better than Static Proxies
Gil-Pagés, M., Sánchez-Carrión, R., Tormos, J., Enseñat-Cantallops, A., & Garcia-Molina, A. (2019) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617719000638 · Cited by 19
“The model fit was acceptable but not excellent (χ2 (17)= 67.33; p< 0.001), with a comparative fit index of 0.863 (Iacobucci, 2010) (see Figure A for a diagram of the model tested).”
BackgroundInfluential
School Tracks as Differential Learning Environments Moderate the Relationship Between Teaching Quality and Multidimensional Learning Goals in Mathematics
Schiepe-Tiska, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2019.00004 · Cited by 19
“In order to evaluate the model fits, suggestions of Iacobucci (2010) were followed.”
Method
Role of Social and Human Capital in Household Resilience: Empirical Evidence from an Agricultural Village Community with Exposure to Significant Environmental Stresses in Sri Lanka
Anuradha, J., Fujimura, M., Inaoka, T., & Sakai, N. (2019) · Global Social Welfare · doi:10.1007/s40609-018-00137-w · Cited by 19
Navigating from programme loyalty to company loyalty
Gupta, S., Gupta, T., & Shainesh, G. (2018) · IIMB Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.iimb.2018.01.009 · Cited by 19
Do food and beverage cost-control measures increase hotel performance? A case study in Istanbul, Turkey
Cengiz, E., Cengiz, F., Demirçiftçi, T., & Çobanoğlu, C. (2018) · Journal of Foodservice Business Research · doi:10.1080/15378020.2018.1493893 · Cited by 19
“…for the data: χ2/df = 1.985 (p = .159); CFI = 0.996; GFI: 0.990; SRMR = 0.0263; RMSEA = 0.056 (Guzman, Lagdaan, & Lagoy, 2015; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Iacobucci, 2009, 2010; Jarvis, Mackenzie, Podsakoff, Mick, & Bearden, 2003; Kline, 2011; Maslowsky, Jager, & Hemken, 2015; Perry et al., 2015),…”
Influential
Social antecedents in physical activity: Tracking the self‐determination theory sequence in adolescents
Chicote‐López, J., Sos, A. A., Gallardo, L. O., & García‐González, L. (2017) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.21945 · Cited by 25
“Thus, a fit model is considered adequate when the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) have values of >.90, the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) is .06 and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) .08 (Iacobucci, 2010).”
Method
Information sharing as a safeguard against the opportunistic behavior of South African Karoo Lamb farmers
van der Merwe, M., Kirsten, J., & Trienekens, J. (2017) · Agricultural Economics · doi:10.1111/agec.12389 · Cited by 19
Beginning Nurses’ Perceptions of Ethical Leadership in the Shadow of Mid Staffs
Mastracci, S. H. (2017) · Public Integrity · doi:10.1080/10999922.2016.1231506 · Cited by 19
“%) and also providing a suitable sample size for structural equation modeling (Iacobucci, 2010).”
Background
Association between body mass index and salivary uric acid among Mexican‐origin infants, youth and adults: Gender and developmental differences
Martínez, A. D., Ruelas, L., & Granger, D. A. (2016) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.21492 · Cited by 23
“Nonetheless, methodologists (Anderson & Gerbing, 1984; Iacobucci, 2010) suggest a sample size of at least 100 for convergence in a structural equation model, where we had a total of 111 participants.”
Background
Development of the parental needs scale for rare diseases: a tool for measuring the supportive care needs of parents caring for a child with a rare disease
Pelentsov, L. J., Fielder, A., Laws, T., & Esterman, A. (2016) · Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare · doi:10.2147/jmdh.s113898 · Cited by 19
“There is no consensus about required sample sizes for both EFA and CFA; however, a minimum sample of 100 has been proposed.(20)”
I complain for your good? Re-examining consumer advocacy
Jayasimha, K., & Billore, A. (2016) · doi:10.1080/0965254x.2015.1011204 · Cited by 19
“To testmoderation using SEM, themean centered consumer advocacy, severity, and their product were introduced as predictors (Iacobucci, 2010).”
Method
Credibility and price premium-based competitiveness for industrial brands
Leckie, C., Dwivedi, A., & Johnson, L. W. (2023) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2023.103418 · Cited by 24
The Effect of Anticipated and Experienced Regret and Pride on Investors’ Future Selling DecisionsPreprint
Lee, C. K. M., Kräussl, R., & Paas, L. J. (2009) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1512493 · Cited by 3
Racial and Ethnic Differences in Outcomes of a 12-Week Digital Rehabilitation Program for Musculoskeletal Pain: Prospective Longitudinal Cohort Study
Scheer, J., Costa, F., Molinos, M., Areias, A., Janela, D., Moulder, R. G., Lains, J., Bento, V., Yanamadala, V., Cohen, S. P., et al. (2022) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/41306 · Cited by 18
Quality of Work Life Determinants of Healthcare Professionals’ Quiet Quitting: Towards Individual Difference
Stankovic, M., & Slavković, M. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13131547 · Cited by 22
“The sample size of 647 subjects is significantly above the recommended minimum limit [53], which is why the data are considered suitable for PLS-SEM computation.”
The role of social community in influencing purchase intention in live-streaming E-commerce: a social learning theory perspective
Yuan, Y., Bai, B., & Xu, S. (2025) · Marketing Intelligence & Planning · doi:10.1108/mip-03-2024-0141 · Cited by 21
Impact of Inflammation After Cardiac Surgery on 30-Day Mortality and Machine Learning Risk Prediction.
Squiccimarro, E., Lorusso, R., Consiglio, A., Labriola, C., Haumann, R., Piancone, F., Speziale, G., Whitlock, R., & Paparella, D. (2024) · Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia · doi:10.1053/j.jvca.2024.12.013 · Cited by 18
The effect of inclusive leadership on turnover intention of intensive care unit nurses: the mediating role of organization-based self-esteem and interactional justice
Du, H., Huang, H.-T., Li, D., & Zhang, X.-N. (2024) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-024-02345-6 · Cited by 18
“Previous studies have shown that SEM analysis is suitable when the sample size is ≥ 200 [30].”
How do purchase preferences moderate the impact of time and price sensitivity on the purchase intention of customers on online-to-offline (O2O) delivery platforms?
Cao, Y., & Wang, J. (2024) · British Food Journal · doi:10.1108/bfj-04-2023-0309 · Cited by 18
Effects of Economic Capital, Cultural Capital and Social Capital on the Educational Expectation of Chinese Migrant Children
Ding, Q., & Wu, Q. (2023) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-023-10144-5 · Cited by 28
Disaster Planning Intentions of Tourism Accommodation Managers: Understanding the Influence of Past Disaster Experience and Disaster Management Training
Sahadev, S., Malhotra, N., Kannangara, L. N., & Ritchie, B. (2023) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/00472875221145129 · Cited by 18
“The measurement model was found to provide a good fit to the data ( χ 2 /d f = 2.164; CFI = 0.949; IFI = 0.95; RMSEA = 0.062), as values for CFI and IFI were > 0.90 and the value for RMSEA was < 0.07 (Iacobucci, 2010; Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2012; Steiger, 2007).”
MethodInfluential
Engagement and Utilization of a Complete Remote Digital Care Program for Musculoskeletal Pain Management in Urban and Rural Areas Across the United States: Longitudinal Cohort Study
Scheer, J. K., Areias, A. C., Molinos, M., Janela, D., Moulder, R. G., Jr., Laíns, J., Bento, V., Yanamadala, V., Correia, F. D., & Costa, F. M. T. A. (2023) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/44316 · Cited by 21
“Mean changes in clinical outcomes for both urban and rural groups following an intent-to-treat analysis are presented in Table 4, while the corresponding model estimates and model fitness are presented in Multimedia Appendix 1, Tables S3 and S4, respectively [60,61].”
Method
Validating knowledge creation factors for community resilience to disaster using structural equation modelling
Oktari, R. S., Latuamury, B., Idroes, R., Sofyan, H., & Munadi, K. (2022) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.103290 · Cited by 18
Do consumers follow their heart or mind when purchasing global brands? Empirical insights
Naseem, N., & Yaprak, A. (2022) · Journal of Global Marketing · doi:10.1080/08911762.2022.2113949 · Cited by 17
“The following indicators for “Goodness of Fit” were used for our SEM analysis – Maximum Likelihood Ratio Chi-Square (χ 2), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) as proposed by (Iacobucci, 2010).”
Method
COVID-19 Pandemic and Business Survival as Mediation on the Performance of Firms in the FMCG-Sector
Adejare, B. O., Olaore, G. O., Udofia, E. E., & Adenigba, O. A. (2022) · Athens Journal of Business & Economics · doi:10.30958/ajbe.8-3-3 · Cited by 18
“The recommended 200 sample size (Iacobucci 2010) was met given that the sample size used for this study is six hundred and seventy (670).”
Method
Factors affecting household solid waste generation and management in Sri Lanka: an empirical study
Zhao, Y., Diunugala, H., & Mombeuil, C. (2021) · Environmental Monitoring & Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10661-021-09633-7 · Cited by 18
“, 1995; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001; Tinsley & Tinsley, 1987) while others have suggested sufficient sample size equal or higher than 200 as the rule of thumb (Boomsma & Hoogland, 2001; Iacobucci, 2010; Kline, 2005), which thus support the size of our sample.”
Result
Exploring the Critical Barriers to and Enablers of Sustainable Material Management Practices in the Construction Industry
Kar, S., & Jha, K. N. (2021) · Journal of Construction Engineering and Management · doi:10.1061/(asce)co.1943-7862.0002125 · Cited by 30
Do different cognitive domains mediate the association between moderate‐to‐vigorous physical activity and adolescents’ off‐task behaviour in the classroom?
Ludyga, S., Gerber, M., Brand, S., Möhring, W., & Pühse, U. (2021) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12445 · Cited by 25

Authors: Iacobucci, D.
Affiliations: Vanderbilt University (US)
Corresponding author: Iacobucci, Dawn
ORCID: Iacobucci, Dawn
Venue: Journal of Consumer Psychology
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2009-10-03
Volume: 20
Issue: 1
Pages: 90-98
ISSN: 1057-7408 (ISSN-L)
1532-7663
DOI: 10.1016/j.jcps.2009.09.003
OpenAlex: W2038318317
Cited by: 2,263
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 111 · 2025: 193 · 2024: 193 · 2023: 186 · 2022: 210 · 2021: 208 · 2020: 158 · 2019: 193 · 2018: 169 · 2017: 129 · 2016: 128 · 2015: 123 · 2014: 94 · 2013: 86 · 2012: 53
FWCI: 34.78
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
papers.ssrn.com
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations: Journal of Consumer Psychology (publishedVersion)
SSRN Electronic Journal (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Applications
Keywords: structural equation modeling, model fit indices, sample size, moderators, longitudinal data, mediation, measurement model, structural model

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Structural equations modeling: Fit Indices, sample size, and advanced topics

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