Short-Term Memory and Working Memory: Do Both Contribute to Our Understanding of Academic Achievement in Children and Adults with Learning Disabilities?

Swanson, H. Lee

doi:10.1177/002221949402700107

Cited by 272Cognitive Abilities and TestingDevelopmental and Educational NeuropsychologyReading and Literacy Development

Short-Term Memory and Working Memory: Do Both Contribute to Our Understanding of Academic Achievement in Children and Adults with Learning Disabilities?

Swanson, H. Lee·1994·Journal of Learning Disabilities

DOI 10.1177/002221949402700107

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Abstract

Seventy-five children and adults with learning disabilities (age range = 5.0 to 42.10 yrs.) and 86 normally achieving children and adults (age range = 5.11 to 58.0 yrs.) were compared on short-term memory (STM) and working memory (WM) tasks to assess the relationship between STM and WM, and to test whether these measures independently relate to achievement. For both ability groups, the factor analyses indicated that STM and WM loaded on different factors, and the regressions and partial correlations showed that these different factors accounted for separate variance in reading comprehension and mathematics. Both STM and WM are important in understanding reading comprehension and mathematics performance in children and adults with learning disabilities; however, WM is more important for children and adults without learning disabilities. In contrast to WM, STM contributed minimal variance to word recognition in both ability groups. Overall, it was concluded that STM and WM do reflect different processes, both of which seem to separate the two ability groups. However, models of memory that view STM and WM as interchangeable, or STM in isolation, do not provide an adequate framework for capturing academic performance in children and adults with learning disabilities.

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Children's abilities to store and manipulate information in short-term memory are closely associated with scholastic attainments over the school years.
“Children Õ s abilities to store and manipulate information in short-term memory are closely associated with scholastic attainments over the school years.”
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“This is particularly important given the contribution of these skills to academic progress and success (Colom, Escorial, Shih, & Privado, 2007; Hornby & Woodward, 2009; Swanson, 1994), and has implications for enrolling children in early intervention programmes that target memory enhancement.”
Background
The role of phonological memory, word recognition, and comprehension skills in reading development: from preschool to grade 2
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Background
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“…(Geary, 1990; Geary et al., 1991; Geary et al., 2000; Hitch & McAuley, 1991; Passolunghi & Siegel, 2001, 2004; Siegel & Ryan, 1989; Swanson, 1993; Swanson, 1994; Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001; Wilson & Swanson, 2001), and poor conceptual understanding (Geary et al., 1992; Hanich et al., 2001;…”
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Memory and Learning Performance in Children and Adolescents
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“…risks include deficits in reading and math, poor communication and organizational skills, difficulty with tasks that demand voluntary, selective, and sustained attention (Brown & Wynne, 1984; Epstein et al., 1993), poor memory (Swanson, 1994), and poor self-monitoring (Schumaker & Deshler, 1988).”
Background
How do children deal with inconsistencies in text? An eye fixation and self-paced reading study in good and poor reading comprehenders
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“These findings are convergent with other reports of impaired verbal working memory among poor readers (Chiappe, Hasher, & Siegel, 2000; Gathercole et al., 1991; Siegel & Ryan, 1988; Swanson, 1994).”
Result
The role of sentence recall in reading and language skills of children with learning difficulties
Alloway, T. P., & Gathercole, S. E. (2005) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2005.05.001 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“2001; Griffiths & Snowling, 2002; Swanson, 1994; Wagner, Torgesen, & Rashotte, 1994).”
BackgroundInfluential
Executive function and early reading skills
Foy, J. G., & Mann, V. A. (2012) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-012-9376-5 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
How common are WM deficits in children with difficulties in reading and mathematics?
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“…widely reported in groups of children with ifficulties in these areas of academic learning (e.g., Archibald Gathercole, 2006a; Siegel & Ryan, 1989; Swanson, 1994). hese findings have led to speculation that poor WM skills ay contribute directly to problems in reading and mathematics. n the…”
Children's Reading Comprehension
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LITERACY INSTRUCTION FOR OLDER STRUGGLING READERS: WHAT IS THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY?
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Two Visual Motion Processing Deficits in Developmental Dyslexia Associated with Different Reading Skills Deficits
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“…(Bull & Scerif, 2001; Hitch & McAuley, 1991; Hitch et al., 2001; Leather & Henry, 1994; Lehto, 1995; Passolunghi & Siegel, 2001; Siegel & Ryan, 1989; Swanson, 1994; Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001; Wilson & Swanson, 2001 – although see Reuhkala, 2001 for contrary evidence with respect to mathematical…”
Cognition in anxious children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A comparison with clinical and normal children
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Neural Mechanisms of Language-Based Learning Impairments: Insights from Human Populations and Animal Models
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The Effects of Timed and Untimed Testing Conditions on the Reading Comprehension Performance of Adults with Reading Disabilities
Lesaux, N. K., Pearson, M. R., & Siegel, L. S. (2006) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-005-4714-5 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Swanson (1994) examined whether short-term memory and working memory contribute unique variance to achievement in children and adults with learning disabilities.”
BackgroundInfluential
An Evaluation of a Classroom-Based Intervention to Help Overcome Working Memory Difficulties and Improve Long-Term Academic Achievement
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Working memory and cognitive styles in adolescents' attainment
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Working memory abilities in children with special educational needs
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Working memory and recollection contribute to academic achievement
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Educational & Child Psychology
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Learning Disabilities and Memory
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Self-citation
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The Impact of Periventricular Brain Injury on Reading and Spelling Abilities in the Late Elementary and Adolescent Years
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Memory Skills of Deaf Learners: Implications and Applications
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Is IQ-Achievement Discrepancy Relevant in the Definition of Arithmetic Learning Disabilities?
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Auditory event-related potentials in poor readers
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Working memory in L2 reading comprehension: The influence of prior knowledge
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“…valuable in advancing our understanding of how children learn and acquire language (e.g. Archibald, 2017; Baddeley et al., 1998; Gathercole & Baddeley, 1993; Holmes & Adams, 2006; Swanson, 1994, 2017), which is why it has been used to underpin much of the discussion in this systematic review.”
Reading Disability Subtypes and the Test of Memory and Learning
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“Numerous studies have measured the performance of readers with dyslexia on various memory and learning tests, and a body of research evidence exists demonstrating memory deficits for individuals with reading disabilities (Koenig, Kosslyn, & Wolff, 1991; Shapiro, Nix, & Foster, 1990; Swanson, 1994; Waldron, & Saphire,…”
Background
Metacognitive Strategy Training Adds to the Effects of Working Memory Training in Children with Special Educational Needs
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“Indeed, there is considerable evidence that poor readers perform less well on measures of VSTM (Mann & Brady, 1988; Siegel & Ryan, 1988; Swanson, 1994; Swanson, Sáez, Gerber, & Leafstedt, 2004).”
Background
The Effect of Presentation Rate on Serial Memory in Young Children With Specific Language Impairment
Fazio, B. B. (1998) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/jslhr.4106.1375 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
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Auditory Temporal Processing Deficits in Children with Periventricular Brain Injury
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Meyler, A., & Breznitz, Z. (1998) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1023/a:1007915517339 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“often interchanged in the literature (Swanson 1994), STM is most frequently identified with the storage functions of WM.”
Background
Using the Cognitive Processing Test to Assess Ability: Development of a Dynamic Assessment Measure
Swanson, H. L. (1995) · School Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/02796015.1995.12085794 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-citation
Memory Performance of Children with Dyslexia
Howes, N.-L., Bigler, E. D., Burlingame, G. M., & Lawson, J. S. (2003) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221940303600303 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
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Revisiting the Relations Between the WJ-IV Measures of Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Cognitive Abilities and Reading Achievement During the School-Age Years
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Electrical Stimulation Over Human Posterior Parietal Cortex Selectively Enhances the Capacity of Visual Short-Term Memory
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The role of working memory in long-term learning: Implications for childhood development
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Intelligence, Working Memory, and Learning Disabilities
Swanson, H. L. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-410388-7.00010-5 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citation
Context of academic achievement: lessons from Hong Kong
Phillipson, S. (2009) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410903059024 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
The Reciprocal Influences of Working Memory and Linguistic Knowledge on Language Performance: Considerations for the Assessment of Children With Developmental Language Disorder
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Specific Learning Disorders (SLD) and Behavior Impairment: Comorbidity or Specific Profile?
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Individual differences in working memory: A model testing and subgroup analysis of learning-disabled and skilled readers
Swanson, H. L. (1993) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(93)90003-n · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citation
Achievement in Children and Adults with Learning Disabilities? Short-Term Memory and Working Memory : Do Both Contribute to Our Understanding of Academic
Swanson, H. L. (2012)
Self-citation
Working Memory, Short-Term Memory, and Reading Disabilities: A Selective Meta-Analysis of the Literature
Swanson, H. L., Zheng, X., & Jerman, O. (2009) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219409331958 · Cited by 395 · see citing works
Self-citation
1Working Memory, Short-Term Memory, and Reading Disabilities A Selective Meta-Analysis of the Literature
Swanson, H. L., Zheng, X., & Jerman, O. (2009)
Self-citation
The relationship between short-term memory and working memory in children: What’s different, what’s the same, and does it matter?
Swanson, H. L. (2026) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2026.106529
Self-citation

Authors: Swanson, H. L.
Affiliations: University of California, Riverside (US)
Corresponding author: Swanson, H. Lee
ORCID: Swanson, H. Lee
Venue: Journal of Learning Disabilities
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 1994-01
Volume: 27
Issue: 1
Pages: 34-50
ISSN: 0022-2194 (ISSN-L)
1538-4780
DOI: 10.1177/002221949402700107
OpenAlex: W2157670160
Cited by: 272
References: 77
Citations by year: 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 12
FWCI: 6.25
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Learning Disabilities (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
Keywords: short-term memory, working memory, learning disabilities, reading comprehension, mathematics achievement, word recognition, academic performance, children and adults, memory models
MeSH terms: Achievement, Adolescent, Adult, Child, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Language, Learning Disabilities, Male, Memory, Reading, Semantics, Space Perception

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Short-Term Memory and Working Memory: Do Both Contribute to Our Understanding of Academic Achievement in Children and Adults with Learning Disabilities?

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