Biobehavior of the human love of salt.

Leshem, Micah

doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.07.007

Cited by 122Sodium Intake and HealthBiochemical Analysis and Sensing TechniquesRegulation of Appetite and Obesity

Biobehavior of the human love of salt.

Leshem, Micah·2009·Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews

DOI 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.07.007

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Abstract

We are beginning to understand why humans ingest so much salt. Here we address three issues: The first is whether our salt appetite is similar to that in animals, which we understand well. Our analysis suggests that this is doubtful, because of important differences between human and animal love of salt. The second issue then becomes how our predilection for salt is determined, for which we have a partial description, resting on development, conditioning, habit, and dietary culture. The last issue is the source of individual variation in salt avidity. We have partial answers to that too in the effects of perinatal sodium loss, sodium loss teaching us to seek salt, and gender. Other possibilities are suggested. From animal sodium appetite we humans may retain the lifelong enhancement of salt intake due to perinatal sodium loss, and a predisposition to learn the benefits of salt when in dire need. Nevertheless, human salt intake does not fit the biological model of a regulated sodium appetite. Indeed this archetypal 'wisdom of the body' fails us in all that has to do with behavioral regulation of this most basic need.

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People who experience a novel salt appetite sometimes report feeling slightly ill, but do not necessarily crave salt.
“This may be why people who experience a novel salt appetite sometimes report feeling slightly ill, but do not necessarily crave salt (Leshem, 2009).”
From Evolving Concepts of Emotion and Motivation (2018) · cites this paper as Leshem, 2009

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Absence of learning and memory deficits in the vasopressin-deficient rat (Brattleboro strain)
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Lowest neonatal serum sodium predicts sodium intake in low birth weight children
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Limited compensation by table salt for reduced salt within a meal
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Taste-elicited tongue movements in human newborn infants: an approach to palatability.
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Hemodialysis increases the preference for salt in soup
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Changes in gustatory function during the course of pregnancy and postpartum
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Evidence that brain angiotensin II is involved in both thirst and sodium appetite in baboons
Blair-West, J. R., Carey, K. D., Denton, D. A., Weisinger, R. S., & Shade, R. E. (1998) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.1998.275.5.r1639 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Flavor–nutrient learning independent of flavor–taste learning with college students
Capaldi, E. D., & Privitera, G. J. (2007) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2007.08.001 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Salt addiction: A different kind of drug addiction
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The Importance of Salt in the Athleteʼs Diet
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ACTH-elicited sodium appetite in sheep
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The ontogeny of salt hunger in the rat
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Sodium depletion and maternal separation in the suckling rat increase its salt intake when adult
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Rats (Rattus norvegicus) do not prefer salted solid food.
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“Eating addiction”, rather than “food addiction”, better captures addictive-like eating behavior
Hebebrand, J., Albayrak, Ö., Adan, R. A. H., Antel, J., Diéguez, C., de Jong, J. W., Leng, G., Menzies, J. R. W., Mercer, J. G., Murphy, M., et al. (2014) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.08.016 · Cited by 526 · see citing works
Salt in health and disease–a delicate balance
Kotchen, T. A., Cowley, A. W., & Frohlich, E. D. (2013) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmra1212606 · Cited by 335 · see citing works
Evolving Concepts of Emotion and Motivation
Berridge, K. C. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01647 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Explaining variability in sodium intake through oral sensory phenotype, salt sensation and liking
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The seventh macronutrient: how sodium shortfall ramifies through populations, food webs and ecosystems
Kaspari, M. E. (2020) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1111/ele.13517 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Anthropogenic changes in sodium affect neural and muscle development in butterflies
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Determinants of water and sodium intake and output
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The biopsychology of salt hunger and sodium deficiency
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The impact of salt, fat and sugar levels on toddler food intake
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‘Just a pinch of salt’. An experimental comparison of the effect of repeated exposure and flavor-flavor learning with salt or spice on vegetable acceptance in toddlers
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Consumer Awareness of Salt and Sodium Reduction and Sodium Labeling
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Authors: Leshem, M.
Affiliations: University of Haifa (IL)
Corresponding author: Leshem, Micah
ORCID: Leshem, Micah
Venue: Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2009-01
Volume: 33
Issue: 1
Pages: 1-17
ISSN: 0149-7634 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.07.007
OpenAlex: W2127572062
Cited by: 122
References: 249
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 7
FWCI: 0.43
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Sodium Intake and Health
Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Biochemical Analysis and Sensing Techniques
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
Keywords: salt appetite, sodium appetite, salt intake, human-animal differences, food culture, habit, conditioning, gender differences
MeSH terms: Animals, Appetite, Feeding Behavior, Humans, Satiation, Sodium, Dietary

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Biobehavior of the human love of salt.

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