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Cited by 234Regulation of Appetite and ObesityEating Disorders and BehaviorsNutrition, Health and Food Behavior

The direct and indirect controls of meal size

Open access
Smith, Gerard P.·1996·Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
DOI 10.1016/0149-7634(95)00038-g
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Abstract

Meal size is a major determinant of energy intake and an important phenotype in animal models of obesity and in human eating disorders. Successful analysis of the controls of meal size is a fundamental goal of the science of ingestion. This paper proposes a new classification of the controls of meal size based on an unambiguous physical criterion. The criterion is food stimuli contacting preabsorptive receptors along the surface of the gut from the tip of the tongue to the end of the small intestine. Direct controls depend upon such contact. Indirect controls, e.g., rhythmic metabolic, cognitive, etc., do not have such contact. Instead, indirect controls change meal size by modulating the potency of direct controls. A method of measuring the potency of direct and indirect controls is described. The classification is unambiguous, comprehensive, and explicates the functional relationship between indirect and direct controls. Because the method of measurement is quantitative, this classification is heuristic foe mechanistic research and provides a common theoretical framework for diverse investigators interested in different aspects of the controls of eating and meal size.

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  • During eating, immediate, direct pleasure is derived mainly from gustatory and olfactory sensations, driving consumption throughout the meal until satiation signals dominate.

    “During eating, immediate, direct pleasure is derived from mainly gustatory and olfactory sensations, driving consumption throughout the meal until satiation signals dominate ([166](#B166)).”

    From Food reward, hyperphagia, and obesity (2011) · cites this paper as [166]

  • In mammals, the caudal brainstem is the equivalent of the subesophageal ganglion, where direct sensory feedback from the tongue and the gut are integrated into basic motor patterns of ingestion.

    “In mammals, the caudal brainstem is the equivalent of the subesophageal ganglion, where direct sensory feedback from the tongue and the gut are integrated into basic motor patterns of ingestion ([166](#B166), [179](#B179)).”

    From Food reward, hyperphagia, and obesity (2011) · cites this paper as [166]

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Authors
Smith, G. P.
Affiliations
Cornell University (US)
Corresponding author
Smith, Gerard P.
Venue
Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
1996
Volume
20
Issue
1
Pages
41-46
ISSN
0149-7634 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/0149-7634(95)00038-g
OpenAlex
W2023288951
Cited by
234
References
23
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 13
FWCI
2.42
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • McMaster University
  • National Institutes of Health (5k05mh000149-15)
  • National Institute of Mental Health (MH00149)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
  • Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
Keywords
meal size, food intake regulation, gut-brain signaling, dietary habits, obesity, eating disorders
MeSH terms
Eating, Energy Metabolism, Feedback, Humans

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