Cited by 810Functional Brain Connectivity StudiesNeural dynamics and brain functionAdvanced Neuroimaging Techniques and Applications

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The salience network is responsible for switching between the default mode network and the central executive network: Replication from DCM

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Goulden, Nia, Khusnulina, Aygul, Davis, Nicholas J., Bracewell, Robert M., Bokde, Arun L., McNulty, Jonathan P., Mullins, Paul G.·2014·NeuroImage

DOI 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.05.052

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Abstract

With the advent of new analysis methods in neuroimaging that involve independent component analysis (ICA) and dynamic causal modelling (DCM), investigations have focused on measuring both the activity and connectivity of specific brain networks. In this study we combined DCM with spatial ICA to investigate network switching in the brain. Using time courses determined by ICA in our dynamic causal models, we focused on the dynamics of switching between the default mode network (DMN), the network which is active when the brain is not engaging in a specific task, and the central executive network (CEN), which is active when the brain is engaging in a task requiring attention. Previous work using Granger causality methods has shown that regions of the brain which respond to the degree of subjective salience of a stimulus, the salience network, are responsible for switching between the DMN and the CEN (Sridharan et al., 2008). In this work we apply DCM to ICA time courses representing these networks in resting state data. In order to test the repeatability of our work we applied this to two independent datasets. This work confirms that the salience network drives the switching between default mode and central executive networks and that our novel technique is repeatable.

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Background
Somatic engagement alters subsequent neurobehavioral correlates of affective mentalizing
Shany, O., Greental, A., Gilam, G., Perry, D., Bleich‐Cohen, M., Ovadia, M., Cohen, A., & Raz, G. (2021) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25640 · Cited by 5
“…relations comes from studies showing that the ventral salience and the default-mode networks, which overlap with the AS and ToM networks, respectively, show oppositional patterns of activity during tasks that require externally focused attention (Goulden et al., 2014; Wen, Liu, Yao, & Ding, 2013).”
Background
Abnormal static and dynamic functional connectivity of networks related to cognition in patients with subcortical ischemic vascular disease
Huang, J., Cheng, R., Liu, X., Chen, L., & Luo, T. (2022) · Neuroradiology · doi:10.1007/s00234-022-02895-z · Cited by 6
Altered Resting-State Brain Activity and Functional Connectivity in Post-Stroke Apathy: An fMRI Study
Jiang, S., Zhang, H., Fang, Y., Yin, D., Dong, Y., Chao, X., Gong, X., Wang, J., & Sun, W. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13050730 · Cited by 6
“The functions of the SN involve cognition, emotion, and motivation, and it can regulate the two main control networks of the brain, the DMN and CEN, and realize the conversion of internal and external processing [48].”
Background
Foundations of anticipatory logic in biology and physics
Bettinger, J. S., & Eastman, T. E. (2017) · Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2017.09.009 · Cited by 7
Neural evidence for long-term marriage shaping the functional brain network organization between couples
Shi, L., Lou, W., Wong, A., Zhang, F., Abrigo, J., Chu, C. W., Kwok, T. C. Y., Wong, K. K. L., Abbott, D., Wang, D., et al. (2019) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.05.058 · Cited by 6
Tobacco addiction
Addicott, M. A. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815298-0.00009-5 · Cited by 6
Altered anterior default mode network dynamics in progressive multiple sclerosisPreprint
Bommarito, G., Tarun, A., Farouj, Y., Preti, M. G., Petracca, M., Droby, A., Mendili, M. M. E., Inglese, M., & Ville, D. V. D. (2020) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2020.11.26.20238923 · Cited by 6
The abnormal accumulation of pathological proteins and compensatory functional connectivity enhancement of insula subdivisions in mild cognitive impairment
Zheng, D., Xue, C., Feng, Y., Ruan, Y., Qi, W., Yuan, Q., Li, Z., & Xiao, C. (2025) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2025.1506478 · Cited by 5
Neural correlates of executive dysfunction in alcohol use disorder: preliminary evidence from 18F-FDG-PET
Arioli, M., Bossert, I., D’Ambrosio, D., Manera, M. R., Andreolli, E. M., Canessa, N., & Trifirò, G. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1568085 · Cited by 5
EEG microstate analysis in children with prolonged disorders of consciousness
Zhang, Y., Hui, Z., Su, Y., Qi, W., Zhang, G., Zhou, L. F., Zhang, J., Shi, K., Yang, Y., Yang, L., et al. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-11038-2 · Cited by 5
“Conversely, the VS/UWS spends less time in MS C compared to the MCS (P = 0.009) and the HC (P = 0.042), implying that reduced switching between"task-positive“and”task-negative"networks is associated with less temporal conversion of internal and external perceptions 49,50 .”
Influential
Mental fatigue and brain activation using prolonged task-based fMRI: a systematic review on time-on-task and sequential task paradigms
Roose, M., Schampheleer, E., Habay, J., Pauw, K. D., Meeusen, R., Schuerbeek, P. V., Russell, S., Raeymaekers, H., & Roelands, B. (2026) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-025-07222-5 · Cited by 5
“…(early) → disengagement (late) transition is consistent with perfusion and BOLD work on TOT, which shows progressive frontoparietal changes as MF develops (Lim et al. 2010), and with network models in which the salience network (SN) mediates switching between the DMN and ECN (Goulden et al. 2014).”
Influential
The Changes in Concentration of Cerebral Oxygenated Hemoglobin During Single Event-Related Japanese Shiritori Task in Patients With Major Depression Disorder: Comparison With Healthy Subjects
Ishii, Y., Shoji, Y., Sato, M., Nakano, S., Kondo, A., Kodama, H., & Morita, K. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.709771 · Cited by 5
“In the largest meta-analysis of neuroanatomical differences in MDD using previous cortical thickness measurements, it found that MDD was associated with cortical thinning in the insula, anterior and posterior cingulate, and temporal gyri (30): areas key in salience (31), internal mentation (32), and switching between…”
Background
Functional connectivity is linked to working memory differences in children with reading learning disability
Flores-Gallegos, R., Fernández, T., Alcauter, S., Pasaye, E. H., Albarrán-Cárdenas, L., Díaz, B. E. B., & Rodríguez-Leis, P. (2024) · BMC Pediatrics · doi:10.1186/s12887-024-04791-2 · Cited by 7
“The analysis considered the interaction among the SN, DMN, and FPN following Goulden et al. [21] and the evidence in this specific population described in the introduction.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Abnormal multimodal neuroimaging patterns associated with social deficits in male autism spectrum disorder
Wei, L., Xu, X., Su, Y., Lan, M., Wang, S., & Zhong, S. (2024) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.70017 · Cited by 5
“According to previous research findings, the SAN modulates the activities between default mode network and central executive network (Goulden et al., 2014; Sridharan et al., 2008).”
Result
Variations in neuronal cytoskeletal integrity affect directed communication in distributed networks during inhibitory control
Elmers, J., Mückschel, M., Akgün, K., Ziemssen, T., & Beste, C. (2025) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-025-07974-4 · Cited by 7
“It is well-known that network-dependent processes subserve executive functions 21,22 and it is suggested that the interdependency of different networks like the default mode network, the salience network, and the central executive network is crucial for cognitive control 23 .”
Large-scale signal propagation modes in the human brain
Song, Y., Kim, P. S., Philip, B. A., & Kim, T. (2025) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2025.121357 · Cited by 5
Dynamics of task-induced modulation of spontaneous brain activity and functional connectivity in the triple resting-state networks assessed using the visual oddball paradigm
Sbaihat, H., Rajkumar, R., Ramkiran, S., Assi, A. A., Shah, N. J., Veselinović, T., & Neuner, I. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0246709 · Cited by 6
Shared and distinct structure-function substrates of heterogenous distractor suppression ability between high and low working memory capacity individuals
Xie, K., Jin, Z., Jin, D., Zhang, J., & Li, L. (2022) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119483 · Cited by 6
“According to other parcellations, the insula is attributed to the hub of the SN, which is involved in switching between large-scale networks (such as the DMN and FPN) to facilitate access to attentional resources (Bressler et al., 2010; Goulden et al., 2014; Uddin, 2014).”
Background
Mental Gravity: Depression as Spacetime Curvature of the Self, Mind, and Brain
Kent, L. (2023) · Entropy · doi:10.3390/e25091275 · Cited by 5
“The salience network’s more general function is to “gatekeep” the various aspects of executive control [62] by switching the attentional resources between self-related information processing of the Default Mode Network (DMN) and task-related information of the Central Executive Network [63].”
Background
Abnormal effective connectivity of reward network in first-episode schizophrenia with auditory verbal hallucinations
Chen, J., Wei, Y., Xue, K., Han, S., Li, W., Zhou, B., & Cheng, J. (2024) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2024.01.023 · Cited by 4
Inducing a meditative state by artificial perturbations: A mechanistic understanding of brain dynamics underlying meditation
Dagnino, P. C., Galadí, J. A., Càmara, E., Deco, G., & Escrichs, A. (2024) · Network Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/netn_a_00366 · Cited by 5
“Additionally, the salience network monitors the switching between internal and external processing (Elton & Gao, 2014; Goulden et al., 2014).”
Background
Intrinsic functional connectivity strength of SuperAgers in the default mode and salience networks: Insights from ADNI
Keenan, H. E., Czippel, A., Heydari, S., Gawryluk, J. R., & Mazerolle, E. L. (2024) · Aging Brain · doi:10.1016/j.nbas.2024.100114 · Cited by 5
“When the SN detects stimuli that need attention, it signals to switch off the DMN and for control networks to take over [21,50].”
Background
Brain circuits in autonomous sensory meridian response and related phenomena
Lin, I.-F., & Kondo, H. M. (2024) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2023.0252 · Cited by 6
Advances in functional brain imaging technology and developmental neuro‐psychology: their applications in the Jungian analytic domain
Petchkovsky, L. (2017) · Journal of Analytical Psychology · doi:10.1111/1468-5922.12320 · Cited by 5
Psychological and Neural Functions of Working Memory in Social Contexts
Maehara, Y. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-4-431-56591-8_3 · Cited by 5
Whole-cortex mapping of common genetic influences on depression and a social deficits dimension
Hatoum, A. S., Reineberg, A. E., Smolker, H. R., Hewitt, J. K., & Friedman, N. P. (2019) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-019-0611-6 · Cited by 5
Event-Related Potential Measures of the Passive Processing of Rapidly and Slowly Presented Auditory Stimuli in MCI
Kamal, F., Morrison, C., Campbell, K. B., & Taler, V. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.659618 · Cited by 5
Brain Networks Underlying Strategy Execution and Feedback Processing in an Efficient Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Neurofeedback Training Performed in a Parallel or a Serial Paradigm
Dewiputri, W. I., Schweizer, R., & Auer, T. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.645048 · Cited by 5
Subcortical and Cerebellar Neural Correlates of Prodromal Alzheimer’s Disease with Prolonged Sleep Latency
Um, Y. H., Wang, S.-M., Kang, D. W., Kim, N.-Y., & Lim, H. K. (2022) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-215460 · Cited by 5
“ing between the default mode network (DMN) and 521 the central executive network [46].”
Background
The contralateral effects of anticipated stimuli on brain activity measured by ERP and fMRI
Ohgami, Y., Kotani, Y., Yoshida, N., Akai, H., Kunimatsu, A., Kiryu, S., & Inoue, Y. (2022) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.14189 · Cited by 4
“The anterior insula is one of the core hubs of the salience network (Goulden et al., 2014; Seeley et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2019).”
Background
Does practice make perfect? Functional connectivity of the salience network and somatosensory network predicts response to mind–body treatments for fibromyalgia
Medina, S., O’Daly, O., Howard, M. A., Feliu‐Soler, A., & Luciano, J. V. (2024) · Frontiers in Pain Research · doi:10.3389/fpain.2024.1245235 · Cited by 5
Association of Serum Kynurenine Levels and Neural Networks in Patients with First-Episode, Drug-Naïve Major Depression: A Source-Based Morphometry Study
Okamoto, N., Watanabe, K., Nguyen, L., Ikenouchi, A., Kishi, T., Iwata, N., Kakeda, S., Korogi, Y., & Yoshimura, R. (2020) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s279622 · Cited by 5
Attenuated neuronal and autonomic responses during error processing in anorexia nervosa
Suttkus, S., Schumann, A., de la Cruz, F., & Bär, K. (2021) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.2235 · Cited by 5
“Following salience detection, the salience network promotes brain network switching and initiates further processing steps (Goulden et al., 2014; Menon, 2011; Seeley et al., 2007).”
MethodInfluential
[Research on the influence of mental fatigue on information resources allocation of working memory].
Yang, S., Wang, Z., Wang, L., Shi, B., & Peng, S. (2021) · PubMed Central · doi:10.7507/1001-5515.202007050 · Cited by 5
The Impact of Motivation on Sustained Attention in Very Preterm and Term-born Children: An ERP Study
Retzler, J., Groom, M. J., Johnson, S. J., & Cragg, L. (2025) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547251313888 · Cited by 5
“This is thought to drive the switch from the default mode network (DMN), which is typically active at rest or when mind-wandering, to the central executive network (CEN), which is important for controlled attention and goal directed action (Goulden et al., 2014; Sridharan et al., 2008).”
Exploring the neural basis of reaction time variability in ADHD: The importance of examining data at the trial level
Tamm, L., Dudley, J. A., Karalunas, S. L., Simon, J. O., Maloney, T. C., Atluri, G., & Epstein, J. N. (2025) · NeuroImage: Reports · doi:10.1016/j.ynirp.2025.100263 · Cited by 4
“For example, there may be disruptions in the rapid changes in relative activation in the DMN and dorsal attention network (DAN) that are facilitated by the salience network (SN) (Goulden et al., 2014; Menon, 2011, 2023; Menon and Uddin, 2010; Sridharan et al., 2008).”
Why are Men More Likely to Morally Disengage Under Job Stress than Women? Evidence from Resting-state fMRI
Zhong, Z., Chen, X.-P., Ren, H., & Wang, S. (2025) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-025-06071-0 · Cited by 4
“Considering the SN’s role in switching between the CEN and DMN (e.g., Goulden et al., 2014; Sridharan et al., 2008), the RSFC among the CEN, SN, and DMN is likely to serve as a crucial brain indicator associated with job stress.”
A Quantitative Review of Brain Activation Maps for Mentalizing, Empathy, and Social Interactions: Specifying Commonalities and Differences
Kranewitter, B., & Schurz, M. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15070934 · Cited by 4
“Studies have demonstrated that the ventral attention network can inhibit the default mode network to minimize interference from non-task-related processes (Goulden et al., 2014; Wen et al., 2013; Trautwein et al., 2016).”
A Fragmented Mind: Altered States of Consciousness and Spirit Possession Between Rituals and Therapy
Leo, D. (2025) · Integrative Psychological and Behavioural Science · doi:10.1007/s12124-025-09929-0 · Cited by 3
“…Network (ECN – reg - ulating goal-oriented behaviour, cognitive control, and attention) (Shen et al., 2020 ), and (iii) the Salience Network (SN – involved in emotional control, also regulating the switch between self-referential processes and goal oriented thinking) (Goulden et al., 2014 ).”
Mapping Executive Function Performance Based on Resting-State EEG in Healthy Individuals: A Systematic and Mechanistic Review
Chmiel, J., & Kurpas, D. (2026) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm15031306 · Cited by 4

Authors: Goulden, N., Khusnulina, A., Davis, N. J., Bracewell, R. M., Bokde, A. L., McNulty, J. P., & Mullins, P. G.
Affiliations: Bangor University (GB)
Trinity College Dublin (IE)
University College Dublin (IE)
Corresponding author: Goulden, Nia
ORCID: Goulden, Nia
Davis, Nicholas J.
Bracewell, Robert M.
Bokde, Arun L.
McNulty, Jonathan P.
Mullins, Paul G.
Venue: NeuroImage
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2014-10
Volume: 99
Pages: 180-190
ISSN: 1053-8119 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.05.052
OpenAlex: W2066208486
Cited by: 810
References: 47
Citations by year: 2026: 65 · 2025: 101 · 2024: 83 · 2023: 85 · 2022: 79 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 67 · 2019: 58 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 34 · 2016: 37 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 6
FWCI: 18.03
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
e-space.mmu.ac.uk
Licence: other-oa
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-017 (stm-asf)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-037 (stm-asf)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-012 (stm-asf)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-029 (stm-asf)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-004 (stm-asf)
Locations: NeuroImage (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
e-space (Manchester Metropolitan University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders: European Regional Development Fund
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural dynamics and brain function
Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced Neuroimaging Techniques and Applications
Keywords: salience network, default mode network, frontoparietal network, network switching, dynamic causal modeling, independent component analysis, resting state, Granger causality, reproducibility, brain connectivity
MeSH terms: Adult, Bayes Theorem, Brain Mapping, Data Interpretation, Statistical, Female, Humans, Image Processing, Computer-Assisted, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Models, Neurological, Nerve Net, Rest, Stochastic Processes, Executive Function

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The salience network is responsible for switching between the default mode network and the central executive network: Replication from DCM

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