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Cited by 76Environmental Impact and SustainabilityExtraction and Separation ProcessesElectric Vehicles and Infrastructure

Life-cycle analysis, by global region, of automotive lithium-ion nickel manganese cobalt batteries of varying nickel content

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Winjobi, Olumide, Kelly, Jarod C., Dai, Qiang·2022·Sustainable materials and technologies
DOI 10.1016/j.susmat.2022.e00415
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Abstract

The batteries in electric vehicles can account for one-third of their production greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions; thus, it is important to understand how these batteries' environmental performance is affected by both the battery's chemistry and production location. In this study, we examined how transitioning to higher‑nickel, lower-cobalt, and high-performance automotive lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) from the base NMC111 would influence the environmental impacts of LIB production. Transitioning from NMC111 cathodes to cathodes with higher nickel and lower cobalt contents results in a potential increase in the energy density (i.e., increased driving range) of the batteries and is thus favored in the industry. This study utilized the Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Technology (GREET) life-cycle assessment model to conduct the environmental analysis by focusing on the differences among global regions with respect to production conditions (electricity grid, mineral extraction methods, etc.) and examining them on the basis of a set of scenarios for current production conditions to better understand how regional supply-chain variations impact environmental performance. The environmental impact of the transition relative to the GREET baseline conditions was such that the GHG emission levels for NMC532, NMC622, and NMC811 showed reductions of 0.3%, 5.3%, and 7.5%, respectively, relative to NMC111, while the SOx emission levels increased significantly—by 130%, 130%, and 142%, respectively—relative to NMC111. These increases in the SOx emissions levels were correlated with increasing nickel content and were due to the production pathway of the nickel precursor. Through further scenario analysis, we showed that lower SOx emission levels could be attained when the nickel precursor was produced exclusively from mixed hydroxide precipitate (MHP) instead of Class I nickel—although this change resulted in higher GHG emission levels with the current MHP supply chain. Regional variability of the electricity grid profiles also influenced the environmental impacts of LIB production. The use of hydro-powered electricity resulted in reduced GHG emissions levels; however, water consumption levels increased compared to the baseline conditions. Among other scenarios, we also investigated the best- and worst-case-scenario supply chains based on GHG emission levels. In this case, the best-case scenario is the scenario with the lowest GHG emissions, while the worst has the highest. For the NMC811 LIB, the GREET baseline, currently dominant, and worst-case-scenario supply chains showed GHG emission levels of 121%, 173%, and 347%, respectively, relative to the best-case-scenario supply chain. This study highlights the sensitivity of an LIB's life-cycle environmental performance to its supply chain, thereby suggesting a path toward improving the battery's environmental performance, namely, supply-chain decarbonization.

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  • In an NMC pack, the cathode weighs about 1.71 kg/kWh, and of that, about 7.2% is lithium. For an LFP pack, the cathode weighs about 2.07 kg/kWh, and the lithium only makes up about 4.6% of that.

    “In an NMC pack, the cathode weighs about 1.71 kg/kWh, and of that, about 7.2% is lithium. For an LFP pack, the cathode weighs about 2.07 kg/kWh, and the lithium only makes up about 4.6% of that.”

    From Lithium Supply Chain Optimization: A Global Analysis of Critical Minerals for Batteries (2024) · cites this paper as [97]

  • For an NMC battery pack, there is 0.127 kg of lithium per kWh, and for an LFP battery pack, there is 0.096 kg of lithium per kWh.

    “For an NMC battery pack, there is 0.127 kg of lithium per kWh, and for an LFP battery pack, there is 0.096 kg of lithium per kWh.”

    From Lithium Supply Chain Optimization: A Global Analysis of Critical Minerals for Batteries (2024) · cites this paper as [97]

  • Studies by Kelly et al. (2020) and Winjobi et al. (2022) have relied on a single database, the GREET model, and focused on a single chemistry, NMC and its variations.

    “Studies by Kelly et al. (2020) and Winjobi et al. (2022) have explored regional variations on the CF of LIBs based on market-dominant battery manufacturing supply chains.However, both studies have relied on a single database, the Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transport (GREET) model, and focused on a single chemistry, lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) and its”

    From Think global act local: The dependency of global lithium-ion battery emissions on production location and material sources (2024) · cites this paper as Winjobi et al. (2022)

  • Both studies have represented China as a single entity which does not capture province-level variations within the world's largest battery manufacturing country.

    “In addition, both studies have represented China as a single entity which does not capture province-level variations within the world's largest battery manufacturing country.”

    From Think global act local: The dependency of global lithium-ion battery emissions on production location and material sources (2024) · cites this paper as Winjobi et al. (2022)

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Authors
Winjobi, O., Kelly, J. C., & Dai, Q.
Affiliations
Argonne National Laboratory (US)
Corresponding author
Kelly, Jarod C.
ORCID
Venue
Sustainable materials and technologies
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2022-07
Volume
32
Pages
e00415
ISSN
  • 2214-9929 (ISSN-L)
  • 2214-9937
DOI
10.1016/j.susmat.2022.e00415
OpenAlex
W4214823672
Cited by
76
References
24
Citations by year
2026: 1 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 5
FWCI
5.68
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Sustainable materials and technologies (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (DE-AC02-06CH11357)
  • U.S. Department of Energy
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Extraction and Separation Processes
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
Keywords
lithium-ion batteries, NCM cathode, nickel content, NMC811, NMC622, NMC532, LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2, greenhouse gas emissions, sulfur dioxide emissions, nickel precursors, electricity mix, water consumption, electric vehicle batteries, battery supply chain, regional variation, life cycle assessment

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