Reinforcement learning, fast and slow
Open accessAbstract
Deep reinforcement learning (RL) methods have driven impressive advances in artificial intelligence in recent years, exceeding human performance in domains ranging from Atari to Go to no-limit poker. This progress has drawn the attention of cognitive scientists interested in understanding human learning. However, the concern has been raised that deep RL may be too sample-inefficient - that is, it may simply be too slow - to provide a plausible model of how humans learn. In the present review, we counter this critique by describing recently developed techniques that allow deep RL to operate more nimbly, solving problems much more quickly than previous methods. Although these techniques were developed in an AI context, we propose that they may have rich implications for psychology and neuroscience. A key insight, arising from these AI methods, concerns the fundamental connection between fast RL and slower, more incremental forms of learning.
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The anterior cingulate cortex supports conflict monitoring and error detection, enabling adaptive behavioral adjustments.
“The Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) supports conflict monitoring and error detection, enabling adaptive behavioral adjustments (Botvinick et al., 2019; Miller and Cummings, 2018; Palermo et al., 2018).”
From Enhancement of modern defense capabilities by convergence of cognitive neuroscience and artificial intelligence (2026) · cites this paper as Botvinick et al., 2019
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- Authors
- Botvinick, M., Ritter, S., Wang, J. X., Kurth-Nelson, Z., Blundell, C., & Hassabis, D.
- Affiliations
- Google DeepMind (United Kingdom) (GB)
- Princeton University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Botvinick, Matthew
- Venue
- Trends in Cognitive Sciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-05
- Volume
- 23
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 408-422
- ISSN
- 1364-6613 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2938321354
- Cited by
- 667
- References
- 112
- Citations by year
- 2026: 41 · 2025: 85 · 2024: 116 · 2023: 104 · 2022: 120 · 2021: 90 · 2020: 89 · 2019: 21
- FWCI
- 5.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Trends in Cognitive Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- DeepMind
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Reinforcement Learning in Robotics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Psychiatry, Mental Health, Neuroscience
- Keywords
- deep reinforcement learning, sample efficiency, human learning, fast learning, incremental learning, learning speed, computational models of learning, cognitive psychology, neuroscience of learning
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Artificial Intelligence, Humans, Reinforcement, Psychology, Time Factors, Neural Networks, Computer, Memory, Episodic
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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