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Hormone profiles in humans experiencing military survival training
Abstract
Background Clinical models of the human response to intense, acute stress have been limited to laboratory settings or cross sectional characterizations. As a result, data about the sensitivity of the human neuroendocrine activation to realistic stressors of varying magnitudes are limited. The U.S. Army survival course offers a unique opportunity to examine, in a controlled manner, the human response to acute, realistic, military stress.Methods Salivary data were collected in 109 subjects at baseline during four stress exposure time points and at recovery. Serum data was collected at baseline and recovery in 72 subjects and at baseline and during stress exposure in a subgroup of subjects (n = 21).Results Cortisol significantly increased during the captivity experience and was greatest after subjects' exposure to interrogations. Cortisol remained significantly elevated at recovery. Testosterone was significantly reduced within 12 hours of captivity. Reductions of both total and free T4 and of total and free T3 were observed, as were increases in thyrotropin.Conclusions The stress of military survival training produced dramatic alterations in cortisol, percent free cortisol, testosterone, and thyroid indices. Different types of stressors had varying effects on the neuroendocrine indices. The degree of neuroendocrine changes observed may have significant implications for subsequent responses to stress.
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“Physically and psychologically stressful training exercises produce a reduction in testosterone levels in elite special forces.(79) Decreased testosterone from exposure to stress may be caused by decreased leutinizing hormone–releasing hormone (LHRH) synthesis at the hypothalamus or leutinizing hormone (LH) secretion…”
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Mechanistic insights into corticosteroids in multiple sclerosis: War horse or chameleon?☆
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Reijnen, A., Geuze, E., & Vermetten, E. H. G. J. M. (2014) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.07.017 · Cited by 43
Taylor, M. K., Padilla, G. A., Stanfill, K. E., Markham, A. E., Khosravi, J. Y., Dial Ward, M. D., & Koehler, M. M. (2012) · Stress · doi:10.3109/10253890.2011.585189 · Cited by 38
“This coincides with prior studies conducted in nearly identical military settings (Morgan et al. 2000; Taylor et al. 2007).”
BackgroundResultTaverniers, J., Smeets, T., Bue, S. L., Syroit, J., Ruysseveldt, J. V., Pattyn, N., & von Grumbkow, J. (2011) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-011-0043-0 · Cited by 39
Vythilingam, M., Lawley, M., Collin, C., Bonne, O. B., Agarwal, R., Hadd, K., Charney, D. S., & Grillon, C. (2005) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1300843 · Cited by 38
“001; group drug: F¼ 1.83, df¼ 1,16.9, p¼ 0.19), which approx- imate stress levels of cortisol as reported in previous studies (Howard et al, 1955; Morgan et al, 2000, 2001).”
InfluentialSelf-citationArmario, A., Labad, J., & Nadal, R. A. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.01.013 · Cited by 40
Fidler, J. A., Treleaven, C. M., Frakes, A., Tamsett, T. J., McCrate, M., Cheng, S. H., Shihabuddin, L. S., Kaspar, B. K., & Dodge, J. C. (2011) · The FASEB Journal · doi:10.1096/fj.11-190819 · Cited by 39
“Similarly, the stress of military training (which is both physically and psychologically stressful) has been shown to produce sustained elevations in serum cortisol levels (49, 50).”
BackgroundGillespie, C. F., Almli, L. M., Smith, A. K., Bradley, B., Kerley, K. A., Crain, D. F., Mercer, K. B., Weiss, T., Phifer, J. E., Tang, Y., et al. (2013) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32147 · Cited by 36
Serum Testosterone Concentration in Combat-Related Chronic Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Karlović, D., Serretti, A., Marčinko, D., Martinac, M., Silić, A., & Katinić, K. (2012) · Neuropsychobiology · doi:10.1159/000329556 · Cited by 33
Taverniers, J., Taylor, M. K., & Smeets, T. (2012) · Stress · doi:10.3109/10253890.2012.721824 · Cited by 32
“These findings, under identical conditions, have been discussed in Taverniers et al. (2010) and accord with work under comparable stress conditions of both Morgan et al. (2000, 2001, 2002) and Taylor et al. (2007).”
BackgroundMethodResultDeuter, C., Duesenberg, M., Hellmann-Regen, J., Metz, S., Roepke, S., Wolf, O. T., Otte, C., & Wingenfeld, K. (2021) · Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation · doi:10.1186/s40479-021-00145-x · Cited by 28
The stress continuum model: a military organizational approach to resilience and recovery
Nash, W. P., Steenkamp, M. M., Conoscenti, L. M., & Litz, B. T. (2011) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511994791.018 · Cited by 32
Ralph, C. S., Vartanian, O. A., Lieberman, H. R., Morgan, C. A., & Cheung, B. (2017) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2017.04.002 · Cited by 31
“These physiological biomarkers of stress were affected by captivity survival training in U.S. SERE schools to a degree that was equal to or greater than alterations measured in individuals undergoing major surgery or actual combat (Morgan et al., 2000a,b).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationSurgical resilience: A review of resilience biomarkers and surgical recovery
Graham, D., & Becerril-Martínez, G. (2014) · The Surgeon · doi:10.1016/j.surge.2014.03.006 · Cited by 30
Yanagawa, Y., Morimura, T., Tsunekawa, K., Seki, K., Ogiwara, T., Kotajima, N., Machida, T., Matsumoto, S., Adachi, T., & Murakami, M. (2010) · Endocrine Journal · doi:10.1507/endocrj.k09e-359 · Cited by 28
Sex differences in coping strategies in military survival school
Schmied, E. A., Padilla, G. A., Thomsen, C. J., Lauby, M. D. H., Harris, E., & Taylor, M. K. (2014) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.10.005 · Cited by 27
Andersen, J. P., Dorai, M., Papazoglou, K. O., & Arnetz, B. B. (2016) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0000000000000756 · Cited by 30
“The findings are in line with prior research indicating that military personnel undergoing stressful training scenarios experience elevated daily cortisol patterns.(8) High-performance athletes also exhibit high diurnal cortisol patterns and elevated CAR responses, similar to police and military personnel.”
ResultVaara, J. P., Eränen, L., Ojanen, T., Pihlainen, K., Nykänen, T., Kallinen, K., Heikkinen, R., & Kyröläinen, H. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17239064 · Cited by 26
“Moreover, hormonal biomarkers respond rapidly to alterations in physiological state and it has been shown that during military field training, for example, cortisol and testosterone concentrations can change to great extent [4,5,8,9,11].”
BackgroundSalivary Biosensors for Screening Trauma-Related Psychopathology
Shetty, V., & Yamaguchi, M. (2010) · Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.coms.2010.01.004 · Cited by 27
Bhattacharya, A., Chakraborty, M., Chanda, A., Alqahtani, T., Kumer, A., Dhara, B., & Chattopadhyay, M. (2024) · Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1111/jcmm.18220 · Cited by 27
“34 Notably, testosterone levels decrease following stress, 35 and individuals with PTSD or MDD often exhibit low circulating levels of this hormone.”
BackgroundTestosterone and cortisol responses to acute and prolonged stress during officer training school
Zueger, R., Annen, H., & Ehlert, U. (2023) · Stress · doi:10.1080/10253890.2023.2199886 · Cited by 25
“…conditions (e.g. competitiveness) were not assessed. consistent with the hypothesis and in line with other military studies (lieberman et al., 2016; Morgan et al., 2000), testosterone decreased dramatically and cortisol increased concurrently during the brief recovery phase in the field exercise.…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialTaylor, M. K., Larson, G. E., Hiller Lauby, M. D., Padilla, G. A., Wilson, I. E., Schmied, E. A., Highfill-McRoy, R. M., & Morgan, C. A. (2014) · Stress · doi:10.3109/10253890.2013.869208 · Cited by 18
“Morgan and colleagues pioneered a scientific paradigm evaluating stress reactivity among trainees in a standardized yet highly realistic survival training involving mock captivity (Dimoulas et al., 2007; Morgan et al., 2000, 2004).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSpratt, D. I., Kramer, R. S., Morton, J. R., Lucas, F. L., Becker, K., & Longcope, C. (2008) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00472.2007 · Cited by 25
Lieberman, H. R., Thompson, L., Caruso, C. M., Niro, P. J., Mahoney, C. R., McClung, J. P., & Caron, G. R. (2014) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-014-3727-7 · Cited by 25
“…we observed are consistent with previous studies of SERE School which observe very high levels of cortisol and changes in other stress hormones and cardiovascular function (Morgan et al. 2000a; Morgan et al. 2000b;Morgan et al. 2001; Morgan et al. 2002; Morgan et al. 2004; Taylor et al. 2007).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMemory, stress, and the hippocampal hypothesis: Firefighters' recollections of the fireground
Metcalfe, J., Brezler, J. C., McNamara, J., Maletta, G., & Vuorre, M. (2019) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.23128 · Cited by 25
“Glucocorticoid levels during this training indicated that the participants were experiencing extreme, even traumatic, stress (Morgan et al., 2000).”
BackgroundFarina, E. K., Taylor, J. C., Means, G. E., Williams, K. W., Murphy, N. E., Margolis, L. M., Pasiakos, S. M., Lieberman, H. R., & McClung, J. P. (2017) · Military Medicine · doi:10.7205/milmed-d-16-00022 · Cited by 23
Acute gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist treatment enhances extinction memory in male rats
Maeng, L. Y., Taha, M. B., Cover, K. K., Glynn, S., Murillo, M. F., Lebrón‐Milad, K., & Milad, M. R. (2017) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.05.015 · Cited by 22
Bermudez, D. S., Milnes, M. R., Bryan, T. A., Gunderson, M. P., Tubbs, C. W., Woodward, A. R., & Guillette, L. J. (2005) · Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A Molecular & Integrative Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.cbpb.2005.02.015 · Cited by 23
“Do alligators exhibit seasonal variation in circulating T4 concentration similar to that observed in other vertebrates experiencing winter inactivity? Is an abiotic environmental factor, such as temperature correlated with plasma concentrations of T4? For example, stress can influence thyroid hormone concentrations in…”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Morgan, C. A., Wang, S., Mason, J., Southwick, S. M., Fox, P., Hazlett, G., Charney, D. S., & Greenfield, G.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- United States Department of the Army (US)
- United States Army (US)
- Corresponding author
- Morgan, Charles A
- Venue
- Biological Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2000-05
- Volume
- 47
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 891-901
- ISSN
- 0006-3223 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2024255098
- Cited by
- 206
- References
- 61
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 15
- FWCI
- 1.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Biological Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Adrenal Hormones and Disorders
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Keywords
- acute stress, cortisol, testosterone, free cortisol, thyroid hormones, thyroid-stimulating hormone, salivary biomarkers, serum biomarkers, captivity stress, neuroendocrine response, stress recovery
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Humans, Hydrocortisone, Male, Military Personnel, Saliva, Stress, Physiological, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Survival, Testosterone, Thyroid Gland, Thyroid Hormones
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