Cited by 955Intimate Partner and Family ViolenceHomicide, Infanticide, and Child AbuseGun Ownership and Violence Research

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The global prevalence of intimate partner homicide: a systematic review

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Stöckl, Heidi, Devries, Karen, Rotstein, Alexandra, Abrahams, Naeemah, Campbell, Jacquelyn, Watts, Charlotte, Moreno, Claudia Garcia·2013·The Lancet

DOI 10.1016/s0140-6736(13)61030-2

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Abstract

Background Homicide is an important cause of premature mortality globally, but evidence for the magnitude of homicides by intimate partners is scarce and hampered by the large amount of missing information about the victim-offender relationship. The objective of the study was to estimate global and regional prevalence of intimate partner homicide.Methods A systematic search of five databases (Medline, Global Health, Embase, Social Policy, and Web of Science) yielded 2167 abstracts, and resulted in the inclusion of 118 full-text articles with 1122 estimates of the prevalence of intimate partner homicide after double-blind screening. All studies were included that reported the number or proportion of women or men who were murdered by an intimate partner in a country, province, or town, using an inclusive definition of an intimate partner. Additionally, a survey of official sources of 169 countries provided a further 53 estimates. We selected one estimate per country-year using a quality assessment decision algorithm. The median prevalence of intimate partner homicide was calculated by country and region overall, and for women and men separately.Findings Data were obtained for 66 countries. Overall 13·5% (IQR 9·2-18·2) of homicides were committed by an intimate partner, and this proportion was six times higher for female homicides than for male homicides (38·6%, 30·8-45·3, vs 6·3%, 3·1-6·3). Median percentages for all (male and female) and female intimate partner homicide were highest in high-income countries (all, 14·9%, 9·2-18·2; female homicide, 41·2%, 30·8-44·5) and in southeast Asia (18·8%, 11·3-18·8; 58·8%, 58·8-58·8). Adjustments to account for unknown victim-offender relationships generally increased the prevalence, suggesting that results presented are conservative.Interpretation At least one in seven homicides globally and more than a third of female homicides are perpetrated by an intimate partner. Such violence commonly represents the culmination of a long history of abuse. Strategies to reduce homicide risk include increased investment in intimate partner violence prevention, risk assessments at different points of care, support for women experiencing intimate partner violence, and control of gun ownership for people with a history of violence. Improvements in country-level data collection and monitoring systems are also essential, because data availability and quality varied strongly across regions.Funding WHO, Sigrid Rausing Trust, and the UK Economic and Social Research Council.

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“Stöckl et al. ’ s (2013) global review of intimate partner homicide found that 13.5% of homicides worldwide could be attributed to an intimate partner, while global rates of IPF accounted for nearly 40% of femicide (p. 863).”
BackgroundInfluential
Mortalidade de mulheres com notificação de violência durante a gravidez no Brasil: um estudo caso-controle
Soares, M. Q., de Melo, C. M., Pinto, I. V., & Bevilacqua, P. D. (2023) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/0102-311xpt012823 · Cited by 14
“Tal achado reforça a necessidade de políticas que visem a redução da violência armada, como leis restri-tivas de porte 22,24,47,51,52 , o que é contrário ao que ocorreu no Brasil, em que a discussão sobre a fle-xibilização do acesso às armas de fogo ganhou evidência com a ascensão de grupos…”
Background
Prevalence and Patterns of Intimate Partner Violence in a Nationally Representative Sample in Lithuania
Žukauskienė, R., Kaniušonytė, G., Bakaitytė, A., & Truskauskaitė‐Kunevičienė, I. (2019) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-019-00126-3 · Cited by 13
Women’s Murders and the Interaction Between Gender (In)equality and Economic Development: A Subnational Analysis in Turkey
Kavaklı, K. C. (2020) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260520967164 · Cited by 12
“They mostly describe broad trends in its frequency over time or the shared characteristics of victims (e.g., Abrahams et al., 2013; Frye et al., 2005; Stöckl et al., 2013) and do not explain why some places experience more femicide than others.”
Background
Emerging trends in domestic homicide/femicide in Greece over the period 2010–2021
Karakasi, M., Voultsos, P. P., Fotou, E., Nikolaidis, I., Kyriakou, M. S., Markopoulou, M., Douzenis, A., & Pavlidis, P. (2022) · Medicine Science and the Law · doi:10.1177/00258024221103700 · Cited by 12
“Therefore, during the six years that elapsed between the studies a decrease could be noted in the number of victims.(6,7) In Europe, the femicide average is 1.”
Background
Stressful life events, intimate partner violence, and perceived stress in the postpartum period: longitudinal findings in rural Pakistan
Haight, S. C., Gallis, J. A., Chung, E. O., Baranov, V., Bibi, A., Frost, A., Hagaman, A. K., Sikander, S., Maselko, J., & Bates, L. M. (2022) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-022-02354-3 · Cited by 12
Eligibility criteria in systematic reviews published in prominent medical journals: a methodological review
McCrae, N., & Purssell, E. (2015) · Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/jep.12448 · Cited by 17
Advancing our knowledge of the complexity and management of intimate partner violence and co-occurring mental health and substance abuse problems in women
Masón, R., & Mont, J. D. (2015) · F1000Prime Reports · doi:10.12703/p7-65 · Cited by 14
Family- and community-related determinants of intimate partner violence among Mexican and Puerto Rican origin mothers in fragile families
Paat, Y., Hope, T. L., Mangadu, T., Núñez‐Mchiri, G. G., & Chávez-Baray, S. M. (2017) · Women s Studies International Forum · doi:10.1016/j.wsif.2017.05.004 · Cited by 12
“Intimate partner violence (IPV), which is disproportionately experienced by women, is a public health concern that warrants scholarly attention and policy intervention (Devries et al., 2013; Stöckl et al., 2013; WHO, 2013, 2016).”
Background
Femicide, intimate partner violence and legal complaints in Spain
Fiol, E. B., & Pérez, V. A. F. (2019) · Journal of Gender Studies · doi:10.1080/09589236.2019.1616537 · Cited by 12
“…of intimate partner femicides Beyond their variability and the controversy as to the most appropriate criteria and methodology for their collection (Stöckl et al., 2013; Vives-Cases et al., 2016), the data show that intimate partner violence is a major cause of female homicides in a large number…”
BackgroundInfluential
“Being Married Doesn’t Mean You Have to Reach the End of the World”: Safety Planning With Intimate Partner Violence Survivors and Service Providers in Three Urban Informal Settlements in Nairobi, Kenya
Wood, S. N., Kennedy, S. R., Hameeduddin, Z., Asira, B., Tallam, C., Akumu, I., Wanjiru, I., Glass, N. E., & Decker, M. R. (2019) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260519879237 · Cited by 12
“IPV can be lethal, with approximately 39% of the global female homicides perpetrated by an intimate partner (Stöckl et al., 2013).”
Background
Measurement of supportive attitudes towards intimate partner violence against women among a Spanish-speaker sample
Sánchez-Prada, A., Álvarez, C. D., Fiol, E. B., Ferreiro-Basurto, V., & Pérez, V. A. F. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0241392 · Cited by 12
Domestic violence among Omani women: prevalence, risk factors and help-seeking behaviour
Kendi, A. A. A., Shidhan, N. A., & Kiyumi, M. H. A. (2021) · Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal · doi:10.26719/2021.27.3.242 · Cited by 18
“A systematic review confirmed that about one third of female homicides were a result of intimate partner violence (12).”
Background
Acción COST Femicide Across Europe, un espacio de cooperación trasnacional para el estudio y el abordaje del feminicidio en Europa
Sanz‐Barbero, B., Otero‐García, L., Boira, S., Servós, C. M., & Vives‐Cases, C. (2016) · Gaceta Sanitaria · doi:10.1016/j.gaceta.2016.04.019 · Cited by 12
Commentary: Actions to end violence against women: A multi-sector approach
García‐Moreno, C., & Temmerman, M. (2015) · Global Public Health · doi:10.1080/17441692.2014.986163 · Cited by 12
The epidemiological and medico-legal characteristics of violent deaths and spousal homicides through a population of women autopsied within the Forensic Medicine Department of the University Hospital of Annaba
MELLOUKI, Y., SELLAMI, L., Saker, L., Belkhadja, N., ZERAIRIA, Y., KAIOUS, F., & Mira, A. H. (2023) · BMC Women s Health · doi:10.1186/s12905-023-02287-2 · Cited by 11
“5% of homicides was committed by the intimate female partner and this frequency is six times higher than that of homicides against male partners [14].”
Background
Risks of Severe Assault and Intimate Partner Homicide among Transgender and Gender Diverse Intimate Partner Violence Survivors: Preliminary Findings from Community Listening Sessions
Sherman, A. D. F., Peitzmeier, S., Cimino, A., Balthazar, M., Klepper, M., Chand, A. T., Lawrence, C., Allure, K., Slink, G., & Campbell, J. (2023) · Violence against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012231172700 · Cited by 9
“As with the cisgender population (Black et al., 2011; Stöckl et al., 2013), a portion of TGD IPV victims are at risk of being severely assaulted or murdered by an intimate partner.”
Self-citation
An insight on gender‐based violence
Ochani, K., Siddiqui, A., & Ochani, S. (2024) · Health Science Reports · doi:10.1002/hsr2.1815 · Cited by 11
The prevalence of intimate partner violence in Australia: a national survey
Mathews, B., Hegarty, K. L., MacMillan, H. L., Madzoska, M., Erskine, H. E., Pacella, R., Scott, J. G., Thomas, H. J., Meinck, F., Higgins, D. J., et al. (2025) · The Medical Journal of Australia · doi:10.5694/mja2.52660 · Cited by 14
Violence against women and girls 3 From work with men and boys to changes of social norms and reduction of inequities in gender relations: a conceptual shift in prevention of violence against women and girls
Jewkes, R. K., Flood, M., & Lang, J. (2014) · Cited by 11
Female geronticide: the case of Israel
Weil, S., & Keshet, N. S. (2020) · Journal of Gender Studies · doi:10.1080/09589236.2020.1809361 · Cited by 11
“6% of all femicides sampled in 66 countries (Stöckl et al., 2013), in this research, 100% of all female geronticides were carried out by intimate partners.”
BackgroundInfluential
The Gender Violence - Implicit Association Test to measure attitudes toward intimate partner violence against women
Pérez, V. A. F., Sánchez-Prada, A., Álvarez, C. D., & Fiol, E. B. (2020) · Psicologia Reflexão e Crítica · doi:10.1186/s41155-020-00165-6 · Cited by 12
Using the Theoretical Framework of Acceptability for qualitative assessment of the "COMBAT" VAW intervention in Ghana
Hornuvo, R., Addo-Lartey, A. A., Alangea, D. O., & Dako‐Gyeke, P. (2022) · PLOS Global Public Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pgph.0000269 · Cited by 11
“The entrenched nature of violence perpetrated against women is of public health concern, considering that VAW is also known as a leading cause of homicide among women globally [1].”
Background
Dating violence prevalence and risk factors among adolescents (14–19 years) in urban public schools in Panama
Gabster, A., Hall, C. D. X., Yu-Pon, A., Millender, E., Wong, F. Y., & Pascale, J. M. (2022) · The Lancet Regional Health - Americas · doi:10.1016/j.lana.2022.100383 · Cited by 12
GENDER VIOLENCE: SOCIAL REPRESENTATIONS OF RELATIVES
Rodrigues, V. P., Machado, J. C., Santos, W. D. S., Santos, M. D. F. D. S., & Diniz, N. M. F. (2016) · Texto & Contexto - Enfermagem · doi:10.1590/0104-07072016002770015 · Cited by 11
Intimate partner homicide, immigration and citizenship: evidence from Norway 1990–2012
Vatnar, S. K. B., Friestad, C., & Bjørkly, S. K. (2017) · Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention · doi:10.1080/14043858.2017.1394629 · Cited by 11
“On a global basis, men outnumber women as perpetrators of IPH by a 6:1 ratio (Stöckl et al., 2013).”
Background
Victims of Severe Intimate Partner Violence Are Left Without Advocacy Intervention in Primary Care Emergency Rooms: A Prospective Observational Study
Hackenberg, E. A. M., Sallinen, V., Handolin, L., & Koljonen, V. (2019) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260519837649 · Cited by 8
Towards an integrated approach to violence against women: persistence, specificity and complexity
Musso, M. G., Proietti, M., & Reynolds, R. R. (2020) · International Review of Sociology · doi:10.1080/03906701.2020.1820140 · Cited by 11
Attachment Characteristics Among Women Victimized in No, One, and Multiple IPV Relationships: A Case–Control Study
Ørke, E. C., Bjørkly, S. K., Dufort, M., & Vatnar, S. K. B. (2021) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/1077801220981157 · Cited by 19
“Globally, the proportion of murdered women killed by a partner was six times higher than the proportion of murdered men killed by a partner (Stöckl et al., 2013).”
Background
Criminal Histories of Intimate Partner Homicide Offenders
Zeoli, A. M., Kwiatkowski, C. C., Wallin, M. A., & Brown, K. (2021) · Homicide Studies · doi:10.1177/10887679211046866 · Cited by 11
“Likely because the majority of IPH incidents in the United States and worldwide involve a female victim and male offender (Fridel & Fox, 2019; Stöckl et al., 2013; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2018), most of the aforementioned research solely studied male IPH offenders.”
Background
'She knew he would murder her’
Sela‐Shayovitz, R. (2018) · Journal of Comparative Social Work · doi:10.31265/jcsw.v13i1.157 · Cited by 11
From “classic” child abuse and neglect to the new era of maltreatment
Ferrara, P., & Bernasconi, S. (2017) · The Italian Journal of Pediatrics/Italian journal of pediatrics · doi:10.1186/s13052-017-0336-1 · Cited by 11
“The intimate partner homicide often involve the murder of family members or bystanders, such as the couple’s children, relatives or new partners of the victims and have long-term consequences on remaining family members [9, 10].”
Violence Against Women: A Persistent and Rising Problem
Türkkan, T., & Odacı, H. (2023) · Psikiyatride Guncel Yaklasimlar - Current Approaches in Psychiatry · doi:10.18863/pgy.1291007 · Cited by 20
Femicide during pregnancy and postpartum period by an intimate partner: An integrative review
Soares, M. Q., de Melo, C. M., & Bevilacqua, P. D. (2024) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2024.101919 · Cited by 11
Neurovascular coupling is altered in women who have a history of brain injury from intimate partner violence: a preliminary study
Wallace, C., Smirl, J. D., Adhikari, S. P., Jones, K., Rieger, M., Rothlander, K., & van Donkelaar, P. (2024) · Frontiers in Global Women s Health · doi:10.3389/fgwh.2024.1344880 · Cited by 10
“A systematic review by Stöckl et al .”
BackgroundMethod
COVID-19 feminist framework and biopsychosocial-spiritual perspective for social workers and mental health practitioners to manage violence, abuse, and trauma against children, women, BIPOC, and LGBTQIA+ during and post-COVID-19
Mukhtar, S. (2021) · International Social Work · doi:10.1177/00208728211067158 · Cited by 10
“In the European countries, 19.3 percent of women have experienced IPV in their lifetime (Devries et al., 2013).”
BackgroundInfluential
Imaging and Non-imaging Findings of Intimate Partner Violence on the Trauma Service: A Retrospective Analysis of Two Level 1 Trauma Centers
Sun, E. X., Goralnick, E., Salim, A., & Khurana, B. (2022) · Academic Radiology · doi:10.1016/j.acra.2022.04.012 · Cited by 10
The Influence of Substance Use on Intimate Partner Homicide: Evidence from a Norwegian National 22-year Cohort
Vatnar, S. K. B., Friestad, C., & Bjørkly, S. K. (2019) · International Journal of Forensic Mental Health · doi:10.1080/14999013.2018.1525777 · Cited by 10
“And a systematic review of the global prevalence of IPH indicated that 13.5% of homicides were IPH (St€ockl et al., 2013).”
Influential
Trading Places: Microlevel Predictors of Women Who Commit Intimate Partner Homicide
Szalewski, A., Huff‐Corzine, L., & Reckdenwald, A. (2019) · Homicide Studies · doi:10.1177/1088767919829514 · Cited by 10
“Examining research on IPH and gender shows that women are victims more often than men (Campbell et al., 2007; Fox & Allen, 2014; M. S. Smith & Wehrle, 2010; Stockl et al., 2013), regardless of their age (Cooper & Smith, 2011).”
BackgroundInfluential
The Police Role in Domestic Homicide Prevention: Lessons From a Domestic Violence Death Review Committee
Saxton, M. D., Jaffe, P. G., & Olszowy, L. (2020) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260520933030 · Cited by 11
“A recent review of international data from 66 countries found that 13.5% of homicides were committed by an intimate partner as well as 38.6% of female homicides (Stöckl et al., 2013).”
BackgroundInfluential

Authors: Stöckl, H., Devries, K., Rotstein, A., Abrahams, N., Campbell, J., Watts, C., & Moreno, C. G.
Affiliations: London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (GB)
McMaster University (CA)
South African Medical Research Council (ZA)
Johns Hopkins University (US)
World Health Organization (CH)
Corresponding author: Stöckl, Heidi
ORCID: Stöckl, Heidi
Devries, Karen
Rotstein, Alexandra
Abrahams, Naeemah
Campbell, Jacquelyn
Watts, Charlotte
Moreno, Claudia Garcia
Venue: The Lancet
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2013-09
Volume: 382
Issue: 9895
Pages: 859-865
ISSN: 0099-5355 (ISSN-L)
0140-6736
DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(13)61030-2
OpenAlex: W2124952808
Cited by: 955
References: 34
Citations by year: 2026: 44 · 2025: 64 · 2024: 95 · 2023: 76 · 2022: 113 · 2021: 99 · 2020: 95 · 2019: 77 · 2018: 71 · 2017: 73 · 2016: 61 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 12
FWCI: 8.79
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: The Lancet (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
LSHTM Research Online (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) (acceptedVersion)
Funders: Economic and Social Research Council (ES/I003045/1)
Topics: Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Homicide, Infanticide, and Child Abuse
Social Sciences › Health › Gun Ownership and Violence Research
Keywords: intimate partner homicide, intimate partner violence, victim-offender relationship, high-income countries, Southeast Asia, gun control, intimate partner violence prevention
MeSH terms: Cause of Death, Cross-Sectional Studies, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Data Collection, Female, Homicide, Humans, Male, Risk, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Spouse Abuse

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