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The global prevalence of intimate partner homicide: a systematic review
Open accessAbstract
Background Homicide is an important cause of premature mortality globally, but evidence for the magnitude of homicides by intimate partners is scarce and hampered by the large amount of missing information about the victim-offender relationship. The objective of the study was to estimate global and regional prevalence of intimate partner homicide.Methods A systematic search of five databases (Medline, Global Health, Embase, Social Policy, and Web of Science) yielded 2167 abstracts, and resulted in the inclusion of 118 full-text articles with 1122 estimates of the prevalence of intimate partner homicide after double-blind screening. All studies were included that reported the number or proportion of women or men who were murdered by an intimate partner in a country, province, or town, using an inclusive definition of an intimate partner. Additionally, a survey of official sources of 169 countries provided a further 53 estimates. We selected one estimate per country-year using a quality assessment decision algorithm. The median prevalence of intimate partner homicide was calculated by country and region overall, and for women and men separately.Findings Data were obtained for 66 countries. Overall 13·5% (IQR 9·2-18·2) of homicides were committed by an intimate partner, and this proportion was six times higher for female homicides than for male homicides (38·6%, 30·8-45·3, vs 6·3%, 3·1-6·3). Median percentages for all (male and female) and female intimate partner homicide were highest in high-income countries (all, 14·9%, 9·2-18·2; female homicide, 41·2%, 30·8-44·5) and in southeast Asia (18·8%, 11·3-18·8; 58·8%, 58·8-58·8). Adjustments to account for unknown victim-offender relationships generally increased the prevalence, suggesting that results presented are conservative.Interpretation At least one in seven homicides globally and more than a third of female homicides are perpetrated by an intimate partner. Such violence commonly represents the culmination of a long history of abuse. Strategies to reduce homicide risk include increased investment in intimate partner violence prevention, risk assessments at different points of care, support for women experiencing intimate partner violence, and control of gun ownership for people with a history of violence. Improvements in country-level data collection and monitoring systems are also essential, because data availability and quality varied strongly across regions.Funding WHO, Sigrid Rausing Trust, and the UK Economic and Social Research Council.
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“The negative effects can include low birth weight, poor school performance, relatively high rates of physical health complications, and depression, anxiety, substance abuse and suicidal behaviour, with substantial, persistent, wide-ranging economic impacts. 250”
From Time for united action on depression: a Lancet–World Psychiatric Association Commission (2022) · cites this paper as [250]
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“At least one in seven of these homicides are perpetrated by an intimate partner (Stöckl et al. 2013).”
BackgroundEnrique Gracia, A., López‐Quílez, A., Marco, M., & Lila, M. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0198684 · Cited by 74
Femicide in Turkey between 2000 and 2010
Toprak, S., & Ersoy, G. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0182409 · Cited by 86
Wilson, I. M., Graham, K., & Taft, A. (2016) · Drug and Alcohol Review · doi:10.1111/dar.12405 · Cited by 71
“Moreover, of homicide victims, the proportion of women killed by an intimate partner is six times higher than for men [2].”
BackgroundNesset, M., Lara-Cabrera, M., Dalsbø, T., Pedersen, S. A., Bjørngaard, J., & Palmstierna, T. (2019) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-019-2010-1 · Cited by 61
Intimate Partner Violence Risk Assessment: A Primer for Social Workers
Messing, J., & Thaller, J. (2015) · The British Journal of Social Work · doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcu012 · Cited by 60
“55 per cent of women killed are murdered by an intimate partner (Stöckl et al., 2013), and IPV is the single largest risk factor for intimate partner femicide (Campbell et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialGarcía, L. P., & da Silva, G. D. M. (2018) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/0102-311x00062317 · Cited by 70
The Prevalence of Gender-Based Violence against Women in South Africa : A Call for Action
Enaifoghe, A., Dlelana, M., Durokifa, A. A., & Dlamini, N. P. (2021) · African Journal of Gender Society and Development (formerly Journal of Gender Information and Development in Africa) · doi:10.31920/2634-3622/2021/v10n1a6 · Cited by 68
Evidence of Gender Asymmetry in Intimate Partner Violence Experience at the Population-Level
Fanslow, J., Mellar, B. M., Gulliver, P. J., & McIntosh, T. K. D. (2023) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605231163646 · Cited by 72
“5% of homicides were committed by an intimate partner or ex-partner, with proportions six times greater for women than men (Stöckl et al., 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialGracia, E., Martín-Fernández, M., Marco, M., Santirso, F. A., Vargas, V., & Lila, M. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01146 · Cited by 68
Masculinity and Spousal Violence: Discursive Accounts of Husbands Who Abuse Their Wives in Ghana
Adjei, S. B. (2015) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-015-9781-z · Cited by 66
“6 % of all femicidal killings worldwide occur in intimate relationships (Stöckl et al. 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialExposure to family violence from childhood to adulthood
Shields, M. E., Tonmyr, L., Hovdestad, W., González, A., & MacMillan, H. L. (2020) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-020-09709-y · Cited by 67
Female employment and intimate partner violence: Evidence from Syrian Refugee inflows to Turkey
Erten, B., & Keskin, P. (2021) · Journal of Development Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2020.102607 · Cited by 66
“1While domestic violence is considered the primary cause of homicide deaths for women in both developed and developing countries (Stöckl et al. 2013), even less extreme forms of violence may have crucial health consequences (WorldHealthOrganization 2013).”
BackgroundThe Role of Intimate Partner Violence in Homicides of Children Aged 2-14 Years.
Adhia, A., Austin, S. B., Fitzmaurice, G., & Hemenway, D. (2019) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2018.08.028 · Cited by 65
Decker, M. R., Bevilacqua, K., Wood, S. N., Wamue-Ngare, G., Thiongo, M. N., Byrne, M. E., Williams, A., Devoto, B., Glass, N. E., Heise, L., et al. (2022) · BMJ Global Health · doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2021-007807 · Cited by 65
Enrique Gracia, A., Rodriguez, C. M., & Lila, M. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01567 · Cited by 65
“For example, the main risk of homicide for a woman is from an intimate partner (primarilymen), with the proportion of women killed by a partner six times the proportion of men killed by female partners (Stöckl et al., 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialCaman, S., Howner, K., Kristiansson, M., & Sturup, J. (2016) · International Journal of Forensic Mental Health · doi:10.1080/14999013.2015.1134723 · Cited by 66
“…of IPH victims are female (Campbell, Glass, Sharps, Laughon, & Bloom, 2007; Cooper & Smith, 2011; Corradi & St€ockl, 2014; Serran & Firestone, 2004; St€ockl et al., 2013); however, when females do commit homicide, they are more likely to perpetrate against an intimate partner (Block & Christakos,…”
BackgroundInfluentialSabri, B., Campbell, J., & Messing, J. (2018) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260518792249 · Cited by 51
“…are consistent with numerous studies that suggest that women are at greater risk for being killed by an intimate partner and represent an important population for prevention efforts (Campbell et al., 2007; Puzone, Saltzman, Kresnow, Thompson & Mercy, 2000; Sabri et al., 2016; Stockl et al., 2013).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationMartín-Fernández, M., Gracia, E., Marco, M., Vargas, V., Santirso, F. A., & Lila, M. (2018) · The European Journal of Psychology Applied to Legal Context · doi:10.5093/ejpalc2018a3 · Cited by 68
Adult femicide victims in forensic autopsy in Taiwan: A 10-year retrospective study
Fong, W.-L., Pan, C., Jc, L., Lee, T.-T., & Hwa, H. (2016) · Forensic Science International · doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.05.008 · Cited by 63
COVID-19, Intimate Partner Violence, and Communication Ecologies
Cannon, C. E. B., Ferreira, R. J., Buttell, F., & First, J. M. (2021) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/0002764221992826 · Cited by 66
Racial Disparities in Pregnancy-associated Intimate Partner Homicide
Kivisto, A. J., Mills, S., & Elwood, L. S. (2021) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260521990831 · Cited by 66
Ler, P., Sivakami, M., & Monárrez‐Espino, J. (2017) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260517710484 · Cited by 66
“Besides the resultant morbidities associated with IPV, existing data indicated IPV as the leading cause of female homicides worldwide (Stöckl et al., 2013; UNODC, 2011), thus underscoring IPV’s role as a direct cause of mortality.”
BackgroundTol, W. A., Murray, S. M., Lund, C., Bolton, P., Murray, L. K., Davies, T., Haushofer, J., Orkin, K., Witte, M., Salama, L., et al. (2019) · BMC Women's Health · doi:10.1186/s12905-019-0728-z · Cited by 60
“Consequences of IPV include physical, reproductive, and mental health issues [3 – 5] and in severe cases, the resulting injuries can be fatal [6].”
BackgroundMathews, S., Jewkes, R. K., & Abrahams, N. (2014) · The British Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1093/bjc/azu076 · Cited by 62
Self-citationMachado, D. B., Rodrigues, L. C., Rasella, D., Barreto, M. L., & Araya, R. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0208925 · Cited by 60
Explanatory Theories of Intimate Partner Homicide Perpetration: A Systematic Review
Graham, L. M., Macy, R. J., Rizo, C. F., & Martin, S. L. (2020) · Trauma Violence & Abuse · doi:10.1177/1524838020953800 · Cited by 70
“Keywords intimate partner violence, intimate partner homicide, domestic homicide, theory, conceptual framework, social ecological model Worldwide, one in three female homicide victims is killed by a current or former intimate partner (Stöckl et al., 2013).”
BackgroundViolence Against Women as a Global Public Health Issue
Stöckl, H., & Sorenson, S. B. (2024) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-060722-025138 · Cited by 86
Self-citationDecker, M., Wood, S. N., Hameeduddin, Z., Kennedy, S., Perrin, N., Tallam, C., Akumu, I., Wanjiru, I., Asira, B., Frankel, A., et al. (2020) · BMJ Global Health · doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2019-002091 · Cited by 51
Tsai, A. C., Weiser, S. D., Dilworth, S. E., Shumway, M., & Riley, E. D. (2015) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwu350 · Cited by 61
Jeffries, S. (2016) · Laws · doi:10.3390/laws5010014 · Cited by 60
Coercive Control in the Courtroom: the Legal Abuse Scale (LAS)
Gutowski, E. R., & Goodman, L. A. (2023) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-022-00408-3 · Cited by 57
“6% of women homicide victims are murdered by an intimate partner (Stöckl et al., 2013).”
BackgroundAn Exploratory Study of Honor Crimes in the United States
Hayes, B. E., Freilich, J. D., & Chermak, S. M. (2016) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-016-9801-7 · Cited by 55
“…between a third to half of murdered women worldwide have been killed by a current or former intimate partner (Brock 2003; Campbell et al. 2003; Fox 2005; Stöckl et al. 2013), with women six to nine times more likely than men to be killed by someone they know (Brock 2003; Stöckl et al. 2013).”
BackgroundGender inequality and violence against women in Spain, 2006-2014: towards a civilized society
Redding, E. M., Ruiz‐Cantero, M. T., Fernández‐Sáez, J., & Guijarro-Garví, M. (2016) · Gaceta Sanitaria · doi:10.1016/j.gaceta.2016.07.025 · Cited by 55
Metadata
- Authors
- Stöckl, H., Devries, K., Rotstein, A., Abrahams, N., Campbell, J., Watts, C., & Moreno, C. G.
- Affiliations
- London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (GB)
- McMaster University (CA)
- South African Medical Research Council (ZA)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- World Health Organization (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Stöckl, Heidi
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Lancet
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2013-09
- Volume
- 382
- Issue
- 9895
- Pages
- 859-865
- ISSN
- 0099-5355 (ISSN-L)
- 0140-6736
- OpenAlex
- W2124952808
- Cited by
- 955
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 44 · 2025: 64 · 2024: 95 · 2023: 76 · 2022: 113 · 2021: 99 · 2020: 95 · 2019: 77 · 2018: 71 · 2017: 73 · 2016: 61 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 12
- FWCI
- 8.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Lancet (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- LSHTM Research Online (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council (ES/I003045/1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Homicide, Infanticide, and Child Abuse
- Social Sciences › Health › Gun Ownership and Violence Research
- Keywords
- intimate partner homicide, intimate partner violence, victim-offender relationship, high-income countries, Southeast Asia, gun control, intimate partner violence prevention
- MeSH terms
- Cause of Death, Cross-Sectional Studies, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Data Collection, Female, Homicide, Humans, Male, Risk, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Spouse Abuse
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