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The global prevalence of intimate partner homicide: a systematic review
Open accessAbstract
Background Homicide is an important cause of premature mortality globally, but evidence for the magnitude of homicides by intimate partners is scarce and hampered by the large amount of missing information about the victim-offender relationship. The objective of the study was to estimate global and regional prevalence of intimate partner homicide.Methods A systematic search of five databases (Medline, Global Health, Embase, Social Policy, and Web of Science) yielded 2167 abstracts, and resulted in the inclusion of 118 full-text articles with 1122 estimates of the prevalence of intimate partner homicide after double-blind screening. All studies were included that reported the number or proportion of women or men who were murdered by an intimate partner in a country, province, or town, using an inclusive definition of an intimate partner. Additionally, a survey of official sources of 169 countries provided a further 53 estimates. We selected one estimate per country-year using a quality assessment decision algorithm. The median prevalence of intimate partner homicide was calculated by country and region overall, and for women and men separately.Findings Data were obtained for 66 countries. Overall 13·5% (IQR 9·2-18·2) of homicides were committed by an intimate partner, and this proportion was six times higher for female homicides than for male homicides (38·6%, 30·8-45·3, vs 6·3%, 3·1-6·3). Median percentages for all (male and female) and female intimate partner homicide were highest in high-income countries (all, 14·9%, 9·2-18·2; female homicide, 41·2%, 30·8-44·5) and in southeast Asia (18·8%, 11·3-18·8; 58·8%, 58·8-58·8). Adjustments to account for unknown victim-offender relationships generally increased the prevalence, suggesting that results presented are conservative.Interpretation At least one in seven homicides globally and more than a third of female homicides are perpetrated by an intimate partner. Such violence commonly represents the culmination of a long history of abuse. Strategies to reduce homicide risk include increased investment in intimate partner violence prevention, risk assessments at different points of care, support for women experiencing intimate partner violence, and control of gun ownership for people with a history of violence. Improvements in country-level data collection and monitoring systems are also essential, because data availability and quality varied strongly across regions.Funding WHO, Sigrid Rausing Trust, and the UK Economic and Social Research Council.
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“The negative effects can include low birth weight, poor school performance, relatively high rates of physical health complications, and depression, anxiety, substance abuse and suicidal behaviour, with substantial, persistent, wide-ranging economic impacts. 250”
From Time for united action on depression: a Lancet–World Psychiatric Association Commission (2022) · cites this paper as [250]
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“It is important to emphasise that while there has been only one systematic review with a global perspective, 39 it exclusively examined intimate partner femi-cide.”
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“Femicide, also referred to as intimate partner homicide, fatal IPV, and non-negligent manslaughter, is defined as the homicide or murder of a female by her male intimate partner (Catalano, Smith, Snyder, & Rand, 2009; Stöckl et al., 2013).”
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“A global study byWHOand the London School ofHygiene and Tropical Medicine found that more than one in seven homicides and at least 35% of femicides were perpetrated by an intimate partner (Stöckl et al., 2013).”
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“20 One notable exception was a study conducted by Justin Murphy, which investigated differences in the outcomes of 237 SYG cases in Florida recorded in the Tampa Bay Times from 2005 to 2013 by the race, sex, and relationship of the victim and claimant (i.e., the person claiming self-defense).”
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Predictors of vulnerability and aggression in severe intimate partner violence
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“ARTICLE HISTORY Received 25 February 2020 Accepted 5 August 2020 KEYWORDS Vulnerability; risk factors; male batterers; battered women Femicide is a serious public health problem that requires urgent action to prevent (Stöckl et al., 2013; World Health Organization, 2013).”
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“…number of 55,000 intimate partner homicidally bereaved children worldwide every year, and the aversive effects of IPF on the remaining offspring documented thus far (Stöckl et al., 2013), research still lacks a sufficient understanding of the offspring survivor’s traumatic loss experience.”
What is the scale of intimate partner homicide?
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“…rate has decreased considerably since the 1970s, coinciding with an expansion in laws against domestic violence, significant improvement in gender equality (especially in the labor market and educational spheres), and changes in living arrangements and family dynamics (Stöckl et al., 2013).”
BackgroundViolence, communication, and satisfaction among middle-aged adults and older people from Romania
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A Trisonance: Identities of Women Whose Mothers Were Murdered by Their Fathers
Pitcho‐Prelorentzos, S., Leshem, E., & Shamir, M. M. (2022) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012221092478 · Cited by 10
“It is estimated that over 55,000 children worldwide are bereaved by intimate partner homicide (IPH), usually femicide, every year, and that these left-behind children suffer grave effects (Stöckl et al., 2013).”
BackgroundṾayl, S. C. 2. J., Corradi, C., & Naudi, M. (2018) · Policy Press eBooks · doi:10.56687/9781447347163 · Cited by 7
Stamatel, J. P. (2015) · Current Sociology · doi:10.1177/0011392115617815 · Cited by 7
“…shown that a substantial proportion of female homicides is committed within the context of family-related and/or intimate partner violence, thereby establishing the gendered nature of violence that distinguishes femicide from homicide (Nikolic-Ristanovic, 2004; Stöckl et al., 2013; UNODC, 2013a).”
BackgroundMethodHomicidios en la Pareja: Explorando las Diferencias entre Agresores Inmigrantes y Españoles
Soria-Verde, M. Á., Pufulete, E. M., & Álvarez-Llaberia, F. X. (2018) · Anuario de Psicología Jurídica · doi:10.5093/apj2018a14 · Cited by 9
Editorial: Protecting Patients from Intimate-partner Violence—What the Orthopaedic Surgeon Can Do
Leopold, S. S. (2016) · Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research · doi:10.1007/s11999-016-4978-x · Cited by 7
“• One in 7 homicides (and fully onethird of murders of women) are committed by an intimate partner [9].”
BackgroundMuluneh, M. D., Francis, L., Agho, K., & Stulz, V. M. (2022) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605221120894 · Cited by 6
“GBV includes either/or physical, mental, and sexual health morbidities and increased risk of death, with more than a third of homicides of women attributable to male partners (Stöckl et al., 2013; USAID et al., 2010).”
BackgroundCrosland, S., Tzani, C., & Ιωάννου, Μ. (2025) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639625.2025.2501618 · Cited by 6
Abrahams, N., Mhlongo, S., Dekel, B., Ketelo, A., Lombard, C. J., Shai, N., Ramsoomar, L., Mathews, S., Labuschagne, G., Matzopoulos, R., et al. (2025) · The Lancet Global Health · doi:10.1016/s2214-109x(25)00115-9 · Cited by 6
Self-citationThe Limits of Predicting Near Lethal and Lethal Family and Intimate Partner Violence
Trood, M. D., Spivak, B. L., Ogloff, J., & McEwan, T. (2026) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-025-01029-2 · Cited by 3
Saxton, M. D., Bukhari, S., Jaffe, P. G., SCOTT, K. L., Rajan, P., Reif, K., & Zamfir, D. (2024) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-024-00693-0 · Cited by 6
“When examining homicide data from around the world, more than one third of homicides against women are perpetrated by an intimate partner (Stöckl et al., 2013).”
Yakubovich, A. R., Boucher, L. M., Dodd, Z., Gerhardt, A., & Shastri, P. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-22721-4 · Cited by 7
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Diferencias entre feminicidios precedidos y no precedidos por la separación de la pareja
Ruíz, R. A. (2019) · Revista Española de Investigación Criminológica · doi:10.46381/reic.v17i0.167 · Cited by 8
“El homicidio en la pareja, a pesar de no ser un hecho exclusivo de los hombres sobre las mujeres, es cometido principalmente por hombres (CGPJ, 2018; Stöckl et al., 2013).”
BackgroundViolent deaths among elderly in Attica, Greece: A 5-year survey (2011–2015)
Nikitopoulou, T., Moraitis, K., Tsellou, M., Stefanidou-Loutsidou, M., Spiliopoulou, C., & Papadodima, S. A. (2019) · Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2019.05.002 · Cited by 6
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Minello, A., & Dalla‐Zuanna, G. (2019) · European Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1177/1477370819884251 · Cited by 6
“A recent more specific focus of interest is the analysis of the links between intimate partner homicide and overall homicide, led by the work of Stöckl et al. (2013).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialProfile of female deaths by homicide in the city of Goiânia
David, L. M. V., Minamisava, R., Vitorino, P. V. D. O., Rocha, M. J. P., Carneiro, V. S. M., & Vieira, M. A. (2020) · Revista Brasileira de Enfermagem · doi:10.1590/0034-7167-2018-0985 · Cited by 6
The killing and thereafter: intimate partner homicides in a process perspective, part II
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Tötungsdelikte in der Schweiz von 1990 bis 2014
Walser, S., Markwalder, N., & Killias, M. (2022) · doi:10.38107/029 · Cited by 6
Assessment of Microfinance Interventions and Intimate Partner Violence
Allan‐Blitz, L., Olson, R. M., & Tran, Q. (2023) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.53552 · Cited by 9
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“Most of the data, statistics, and research on femicide are quantitative in nature (Sto¨ckl et al, 2013); although evidence-based risk factors exist both for experiencing and perpe-trating intimate partner violence (IPV), there is a gap in understanding how perpetrators of gender-based violence…”
Female Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Homicide
Lysova, A. V. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-45685-5_4 · Cited by 6
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Machiavellianism and Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
White, L. K., Valos, N., Garcia, X. D. L. P., & Willis, M. L. (2024) · Trauma Violence & Abuse · doi:10.1177/15248380241270027 · Cited by 6
“The effects of IPV are wide ranging, including risk of serious physical injury, employment instability, homelessness, and in some instances, death (Crowne et al., 2011; Stöckl et al., 2013; Wu et al., 2010; Yakubovich et al., 2022).”
Örmon, K., & Hörberg, U. (2016) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/jocn.13306 · Cited by 6
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Metadata
- Authors
- Stöckl, H., Devries, K., Rotstein, A., Abrahams, N., Campbell, J., Watts, C., & Moreno, C. G.
- Affiliations
- London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (GB)
- McMaster University (CA)
- South African Medical Research Council (ZA)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- World Health Organization (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Stöckl, Heidi
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Lancet
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2013-09
- Volume
- 382
- Issue
- 9895
- Pages
- 859-865
- ISSN
- 0099-5355 (ISSN-L)
- 0140-6736
- OpenAlex
- W2124952808
- Cited by
- 955
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 44 · 2025: 64 · 2024: 95 · 2023: 76 · 2022: 113 · 2021: 99 · 2020: 95 · 2019: 77 · 2018: 71 · 2017: 73 · 2016: 61 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 12
- FWCI
- 8.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Lancet (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- LSHTM Research Online (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council (ES/I003045/1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Homicide, Infanticide, and Child Abuse
- Social Sciences › Health › Gun Ownership and Violence Research
- Keywords
- intimate partner homicide, intimate partner violence, victim-offender relationship, high-income countries, Southeast Asia, gun control, intimate partner violence prevention
- MeSH terms
- Cause of Death, Cross-Sectional Studies, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Data Collection, Female, Homicide, Humans, Male, Risk, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Spouse Abuse
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