Measuring the magnitude of socio-economic inequalities in health: an overview of available measures illustrated with two examples from Europe
Abstract
In this paper we review the available summary measures for the magnitude of socio-economic inequalities in health. Measures which have been used differ in a number of important respects, including (1) the measurement of "relative" or "absolute" differences; (2) the measurement of an "effect" of lower socio-economic status, or of the "total impact" of socio-economic inequalities in health upon the health status of the population; (3) simple versus sophisticated measurement techniques. Based on this analysis of summary measures which have previously been applied, eight different classes of summary measures can be distinguished. Because measures of "total impact" can be further subdivided on the basis of their underlying assumptions, we finally arrive at 12 types of summary measure. Each of these has its merits, and choice of a particular type of summary measure will depend partly on technical considerations, partly on one's perspective on socio-economic inequalities in health. In practice, it will often be useful to compare the results of several summary measures. These principles are illustrated with two examples: one on trends in the magnitude of inequalities in mortality by occupational class in Finland, and one on trends in the magnitude of inequalities in self-reported morbidity by level of education in the Netherlands.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The main variables used to measure patients' SES in selected articles were educational level, income, and occupational status.
“The main variables used to measure the patients' SES in the selected articles were the patients' educational level, his/her income and his/her occupational status.(38,39)”
From Socio-economic status of the patient and doctor–patient communication: does it make a difference? (2005) · cites this paper as [38]
Cites
Winkleby, M. A., Jatulis, D. E., Frank, E., & Fortmann, S. P. (1992) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.82.6.816 · Cited by 2,048 · see citing works
On the measurement of inequalities in health
Wagstaff, A., Paci, P., & van Doorslaer, E. (1991) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/0277-9536(91)90212-u · Cited by 1,810 · see citing works
Pappas, G., Queen, S., Hadden, W., & Fisher, G. (1993) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm199307083290207 · Cited by 1,524 · see citing works
The concepts and principles of equity and health
Whitehead, M. M. (1991) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/6.3.217 · Cited by 850 · see citing works
Davidson (1990) · Cited by 621 · see citing works
MORTALITY DECLINE AND WIDENING SOCIAL INEQUALITIES
Marmot, M. G., & Mcdowall, M. E. (1986) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(86)92085-4 · Cited by 556 · see citing works
Kunst, A. E., & Mackenbach, J. P. (1994) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.84.6.932 · Cited by 449 · see citing works
Self-citationSocial Class Inequality in Mortality From 1921 to 1972 in England and Wales
Pamuk, E. R. (1985) · Population Studies · doi:10.1080/0032472031000141256 · Cited by 416 · see citing works
Health inequalities in European countries
Schepers, R. M. J. (1990) · Health Policy · doi:10.1016/0168-8510(90)90427-f · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Leck, I. M. (1990) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.301.6752.608-c · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Health inequalities in European countries
Fox, J. W. (1989) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 304 · see citing works
International variation in socioeconomic inequalities in self reported health.
Kunst, A. E., Geurts, J. J., & den Berg, J. V. (1995) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.49.2.117 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Self-citationSocio-economic health differences in the Netherlands: A review of recent empirical findings
Mackenbach, J. P. (1992) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/0277-9536(92)90264-q · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Self-citationHEALTH INEQUALITIES IN BRITAIN AND SWEDEN
Vågerö, D., & Lundberg, O. (1989) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(89)90266-3 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Calculation of Attributable Risks from Epidemiological Data
Walter, S. D. (1978) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/7.2.175 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
International Variation in the Size of Mortality Differences Associated with Occupational Status
Kunst, A. E., & Mackenbach, J. P. (1994) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/23.4.742 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Self-citationSocial class differences in infant mortality in Sweden: comparison with England and Wales.
Leon, D. A., Vågerö, D. H., & Olausson, P. O. (1992) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.305.6855.687 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Socio-economic mortality differences in Finland 1971-85.
Valkonen, T., Martelin, T. P., & Rimpelä, A. (1990) · Doria (University of Helsinki) · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Social-class inequality in infant mortality in England and Wales from 1921 to 1980
Pamuk, E. R. (1988) · European Journal of Population / Revue européenne de Démographie · doi:10.1007/bf01797104 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Changes in mortality by income in urban Canada from 1971 to 1986.
Wilkins, R., Adams, O., & Brancker, A. (1989) · PubMed · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Is Molecular Epidemiology a Germ Theory for the End of the Twentieth Century?
LOOMIS, D. P., & Wing, S. (1990) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/19.1.1 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Leclerc, A., Lert, F., & FABIEN, C. (1990) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/19.4.1001 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Socioeconomic differentials in selected causes of death.
Yeracaris, C. A., & Kim, J. H. (1978) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.68.4.342 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
The measurement of inequities in health: Lessons from the British experience
Carr‐Hill, R. (1990) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/0277-9536(90)90286-2 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Trends in socioeconomic mortality differentials in post‐war Norway: evidence and interpretations
Dahl, E. S., & Kjærsgaard, P. (1993) · Sociology of Health & Illness · doi:10.1111/1467-9566.ep11433340 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Inequalities in Health and Healthcare
Sheringham, J., & Sowden, S. (2023) · MDPI eBooks · doi:10.3390/books978-3-0365-6979-6 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Mackenbach, J. P. (1993) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/3.2.112 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationA comparison of socioeconomic differences in mortality between Japan and England and Wales.
Kagamimori, S., Iibuchi, Y., & Fox, J. (1983) · PubMed · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Les inegalites sociales devant la mort en grande-bretagne et en France
Leclerc, A., Lert, F., & Goldberg, M. (1984) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/0277-9536(84)90043-1 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 31 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Socioeconomic Inequalities in Health in 22 European Countries
Mackenbach, J. P., Stirbu, I., Roskam, A.-J. R., Schaap, M. M., Menvielle, G., Leinsalu, M., & Kunst, A. E. (2008) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmsa0707519 · Cited by 3,289 · see citing works
Self-citationBraveman, P., & Gruskin, S. (2003) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.57.4.254 · Cited by 1,841 · see citing works
Health disparities and health equity: Concepts and measurement
Braveman, P. (2006) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.27.021405.102103 · Cited by 1,570 · see citing works
Socioeconomic inequalities in morbidity and mortality in western Europe
Mackenbach, J. P., Kunst, A. E., Cavelaars, A. E. J. M., Groenhof, F., & Geurts, J. J. (1997) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(96)07226-1 · Cited by 1,038 · see citing works
Self-citationSingh‐Manoux, A., Adler, N. E., & Marmot, M. G. (2003) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(02)00131-4 · Cited by 1,005 · see citing works
Raghupathi, V., & Raghupathi, W. (2020) · Archives of Public Health · doi:10.1186/s13690-020-00402-5 · Cited by 984 · see citing works
Boyce, W., Torsheim, T., Currie, C. E., & Zambon, A. (2006) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-005-1607-6 · Cited by 910 · see citing works
Socioeconomic inequalities in morbidity and mortality in western Europe
Vågerö, D. H., & Erikson, R. S. (1997) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(97)26033-2 · Cited by 894 · see citing works
Widening socioeconomic inequalities in mortality in six Western European countries
Mackenbach, J. P., Bos, V., Andersen, O., Cardano, M., Costa, G., Harding, S., Reid, A., Hemström, Ö., Valkonen, T., & Kunst, A. E. (2003) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyg209 · Cited by 789 · see citing works
Self-citationPoverty and health sector inequalities.
Wagstaff, A. R. (2002) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 706 · see citing works
Educational differences in smoking: international comparison
Cavelaars, A. E. J. M. (2000) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.320.7242.1102 · Cited by 631 · see citing works
Socio-economic status of the patient and doctor–patient communication: does it make a difference?
Willems, S., De Maesschalck, S., Deveugele, M., Derese, A., & De Maeseneer, J. (2005) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2004.02.011 · Cited by 582 · see citing works
Barros, A. J. D., Ronsmans, C., Axelson, H., Loaiza, E., Bertoldi, A. D., França, G. V., Bryce, J., Boerma, J. T., & Victora, C. G. (2012) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(12)60113-5 · Cited by 552 · see citing works
Trends in socioeconomic inequalities in self-assessed health in 10 European countries
Kunst, A. E., Bos, V., Lahelma, E. T., Bartley, M., Lissau, I., Regidor, E., Mielck, A., Cardano, M., Dalstra, J. A., Geurts, J. J., et al. (2004) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyh342 · Cited by 551 · see citing works
Self-citationElo, I. T. (2009) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-115929 · Cited by 535 · see citing works
Inequalities in longevity by education in OECD countries
Murtin, F., Mackenbach, J., Jasilionis, D., & d’Ercole, M. M. (2017) · OECD statistics working papers · doi:10.1787/6b64d9cf-en · Cited by 534 · see citing works
Self-citationKanjilal, S. (2006) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinte.166.21.2348 · Cited by 509 · see citing works
Trends in smoking behaviour between 1985 and 2000 in nine European countries by education
Giskes, K., Kunst, A. E., Benach, J., Borrell, C., Costa, G., Dahl, E., Dalstra, J. A. A., Federico, B., Helmert, U., Judge, K., et al. (2005) · Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.2004.025684 · Cited by 472 · see citing works
Self-citationChanges in mortality inequalities over two decades: register based study of European countries
Mackenbach, J. P., Kulhánová, I., Artnik, B., Bopp, M., Borrell, C., Clemens, T. L., Costa, G., Dibben, C. J. L., Kalèdiené, R., Lundberg, O., et al. (2016) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.i1732 · Cited by 450 · see citing works
Self-citationBarros, A. J. D., & Victora, C. G. (2013) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001390 · Cited by 445 · see citing works
Palencia, L., Espelt, A., Rodríguez‐Sanz, M., Puigpinós‐Riera, R., Pons‐Vigués, M., Pasarín, M. I., Spadea, T., Kunst, A. E., & Borrell, C. (2010) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyq003 · Cited by 432 · see citing works
Self-citationMeasures of health inequalities: part 2: Table 1
Regidor, E. (2004) · Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.2004.023036 · Cited by 399 · see citing works
Socioeconomic inequalities in morbidity among the elderly; a European overview
Huisman, M. A., Kunst, A. E., & Mackenbach, J. P. (2003) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(02)00454-9 · Cited by 391 · see citing works
Self-citationSocial inequalities in obesity and overweight in 11 OECD countries
Devaux, M., & Sassi, F. (2011) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckr058 · Cited by 395 · see citing works
Unfair inequalities in health and health care
Fleurbaey, M., & Schokkaert, E. (2008) · Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2008.07.016 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
Social Determinants of Pregnancy-Related Mortality and Morbidity in the United States
Wang, E., Glazer, K. B., Howell, E. A., & Janevic, T. M. (2020) · Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1097/aog.0000000000003762 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
Brion, M.-J. A., Lawlor, D. A., Matijasevich, A., Horta, B., Anselmi, L., Araújo, C. L., Menezes, A. M. B., Victora, C. G., & Smith, G. D. (2011) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyr020 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
The Obesity Epidemic: Analysis of Past and Projected Future Trends in Selected OECD Countries
Sassi, F., Devaux, M., Cecchini, M., & Rusticelli, E. (2009) · OECD health working papers · doi:10.1787/225215402672 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
Socioeconomic inequalities in mortality among elderly people in 11 European populations
Huisman, M. A., Kunst, A. E., Andersen, O., Bopp, M., Borgan, J.-K., Borrell, C., Costa, G., Deboosere, P., Desplanques, G., Donkin, A. J. M., et al. (2004) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.2003.010496 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
Self-citationEikemo, T. A., Huisman, M. A., Bambra, C. L., & Kunst, A. E. (2008) · Sociology of Health & Illness · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9566.2007.01073.x · Cited by 343 · see citing works
Self-citationHouweling, T. A. J., Kunst, A. E., & Mackenbach, J. P. (2003) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/1475-9276-2-8 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Self-citationMeasuring health inequality using qualitative data
Allison, R. A., & Foster, J. E. (2004) · Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2003.10.006 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Trends in health inequalities in 27 European countries
Mackenbach, J. P., Valverde, J. R., Artnik, B., Bopp, M., Brønnum-Hansen, H., Deboosere, P., Kalediene, R., Kovács, K., Leinsalu, M., Martikainen, P., et al. (2018) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1800028115 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
Self-citationLundqvist, A., Andersson, E., Ahlberg, I., Nilbert, M. C., & Gerdtham, U. (2016) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckw070 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
Inequalities in the prevalence of smoking in the European Union: comparing education and income
HUISMAN, M., KUNST, A., & MACKENBACH, J. (2005) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.09.022 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Self-citationThe social gradient in doctor-patient communication
Verlinde, E., De Laender, N., De Maesschalck, S., Deveugele, M., & Willems, S. (2012) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/1475-9276-11-12 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Welch, V. A., Petticrew, M. P., Petkovic, J., Moher, D., Waters, E., White, H., Tugwell, P., Atun, R., Awasthi, S., Virginia, B., et al. (2015) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2015.09.001 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
Penman-Aguilar, A., Talih, M., Huang, D., Moonesinghe, R., Bouye, K., & Beckles, G. (2016) · Journal of Public Health Management and Practice · doi:10.1097/phh.0000000000000373 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Inequality aversion, health inequalities and health achievement
Wagstaff, A. R. (2002) · Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1016/s0167-6296(02)00006-1 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
On the interpretation of a concentration index of inequality
Koolman, X., & van Doorslaer, E. K. A. (2004) · Health Economics · doi:10.1002/hec.884 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Relative Index of Inequality and Slope Index of Inequality
Moreno‐Betancur, M., Latouche, A., Menvielle, G., Kunst, A. E., & Rey, G. (2015) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0000000000000311 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Self-citationBirnie, K., Cooper, R., Martin, R. M., Kuh, D. J., Sayer, A. A., Alvarado, B., Bayer, A. J., Christensen, K., Cho, S., Cooper, C. C., et al. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015564 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
Mackenbach, J. P., Kulhánová, I., Menvielle, G., Bopp, M., Borrell, C., Costa, G., Deboosere, P., Esnaola, S., Kalèdiené, R., Kovács, K., et al. (2014) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2014-204319 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Self-citationSocio-economic inequalities in suicide: A European comparative study
Lorant, V., Kunst, A. E., Huisman, M. A., Costa, G., & Mackenbach, J. P. (2005) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.187.1.49 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
Self-citationCavelaars, A. E. J. M., Kunst, A. E., Geurts, J. J., Crialesi, R., Grøtvedt, L., Helmert, U., Lahelma, E. T., Lundberg, O., Mielck, A., Rasmussen, N. K., et al. (2000) · Annals of Human Biology · doi:10.1080/03014460050044883 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Self-citationSocial inequalities in health within countries: not only an issue for affluent nations
Braveman, P., & Tarimo, E. (2002) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(01)00331-8 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Messung des sozioökonomischen Status in der Studie „Gesundheit in Deutschland aktuell“ (GEDA)
Lampert, T., Kroll, L. E., Müters, S., & Stolzenberg, H. (2012) · Bundesgesundheitsblatt - Gesundheitsforschung - Gesundheitsschutz · doi:10.1007/s00103-012-1583-3 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
Cavelaars, A. E. J. M., Kunst, A. E., Geurts, J. J., Crialesi, R., Grøtvedt, L., Helmert, U., Lahelma, E. T., Lundberg, O., Matheson, J., Mielck, A., et al. (1998) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.52.4.219 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
Self-citationBraveman, P., Arkin, E. B., Orleans, T., Proctor, D., Acker, J., & Plough, A. L. (2018) · Behavioral Science & Policy · doi:10.1177/237946151800400102 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
Use of relative and absolute effect measures in reporting health inequalities: structured review
King, N. B., Harper, S. B., & Young, M. E. (2012) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.e5774 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Erreygers, G., & Ourti, T. V. (2011) · Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2011.04.004 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Victora, C. G., Barros, A. J. D., Axelson, H., Bhutta, Z. A., Chopra, M., França, G. V., Kerber, K. J., Kirkwood, B. R., Newby, H., Ronsmans, C., et al. (2012) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(12)61427-5 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Decomposing world health inequality
Pradhan, M., Sahn, D. E., & Younger, S. D. (2003) · Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1016/s0167-6296(02)00123-6 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Roskam, A.-J. R., Kunst, A. E., Oyen, H. J. V., Demarest, S. S., Klumbienė, J., Regidor, E., Helmert, U., Jusot, F., Dzúrová, D., & Mackenbach, J. P. (2009) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyp329 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
Self-citationMeasuring Disparities in Health Status and in Access and Use of Health Care in OECD Countries
Looper, M. D., & Lafortune, G. (2009) · OECD health working papers · doi:10.1787/225748084267 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Hosseinpoor, A. R., Bergen, N., Kunst, A. E., Harper, S. B., Guthold, R., Rekve, D., d’Espaignet, E. T., Naidoo, N., & Chatterji, S. (2012) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-912 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Self-citationMessung des sozioökonomischen Status in der KiGGS-Studie
KiGGS Study Group, Lampert, T., Müters, S., Stolzenberg, H., & Kroll, L. E. (2014) · Bundesgesundheitsblatt - Gesundheitsforschung - Gesundheitsschutz · doi:10.1007/s00103-014-1974-8 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Harper, S. B., Lynch, J. W., Meersman, S. C., Breen, N., Davis, W. W., & Reichman, M. E. (2008) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwn016 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Hoogendijk, E. O., van Hout, H. P. J., Heymans, M. W., van der Horst, H. E., Frijters, D. H. M., Groenou, M. I. B. V., Deeg, D. J. H., & Huisman, M. A. (2014) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2014.05.002 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Subramanian, S. V., Nandy, S., Kelly‐Irving, M., Gordon, D., Lambert, H. S., & Smith, G. D. (2006) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2004.060103 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Income-related health inequality in Canada
Humphries, K. H., & van Doorslaer, E. K. A. (2000) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(99)00319-6 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
Sun, S., Chen, J., Johannesson, M., Kind, P., Xu, L., Zhang, Y., & Burström, K. (2010) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-010-9762-x · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Lewer, D., Jayatunga, W., Aldridge, R. W., Edge, C., Marmot, M. G., Story, A., & Hayward, A. C. (2019) · The Lancet Public Health · doi:10.1016/s2468-2667(19)30219-1 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Clark, C., Martin, R., van Kempen, E., Alfred, T., Head, J. A., Davies, H., Haines, M., Barrio, I. L., Matheson, M. P., & Stansfeld, S. A. (2005) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwj001 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Mackenbach, J. P., Kulhánová, I., Bopp, M., Borrell, C., Deboosere, P., Kovács, K., Looman, C. W. N., Leinsalu, M., Mäkelä, P., Martikainen, P., et al. (2015) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001909 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Self-citationRuiz, M. A., Goldblatt, P., Morrison, J., Kukla, L., Švancara, J., Järvelin, M., Taanila, A. M., Saurel‐Cubizolles, M., Lioret, S., Bakoula, C., et al. (2015) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2014-205387 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Avendaño, M., Kunst, A. E., Huisman, M. A., van Lenthe, F. J., Bopp, M., Regidor, E., Glickman, M., Costa, G., Spadea, T., Deboosere, P., et al. (2005) · Heart · doi:10.1136/hrt.2005.065532 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Self-citationHarper, S. B., & Lynch, J. W. (2005) · University Libraries (University of Maryland) · doi:10.13016/vd7d-coyb · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Torsheim, T., Currie, C. E., Boyce, W., Kalnins, I., Overpeck, M. D., & Haugland, S. (2003) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2003.09.032 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Monitoring equity in health and healthcare: a conceptual framework.
Braveman, P. (2003) · PubMed · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Brønnum‐Hansen, H., & Baadsgaard, M. (2012) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-994 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Race, Ethnicity, And The Education Gradient In Health
Kimbro, R. T., Bzostek, S. H., Goldman, N., & Rodrı́guez, G. (2008) · Health Affairs · doi:10.1377/hlthaff.27.2.361 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Vellakkal, S., Subramanian, S. V., Millett, C. J., Basu, S., Stückler, D., & Ebrahim, S. B. J. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0068219 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Sacerdote, C., Ricceri, F., Rolandsson, O., Baldi, I., Chirlaque, M., Feskens, E. J. M., Bendinelli, B., Ardanáz, E., Arriola, L., Balkau, B., et al. (2012) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dys091 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Inequalities in lung cancer mortality by the educational level in 10 European populations
Mackenbach, J. P., Huisman, M. A., Andersen, O., Bopp, M., Borgan, J., Borrell, C., Costa, G., Deboosere, P., Donkin, A. J. M., Gadeyne, S., et al. (2003) · European Journal of Cancer · doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2003.10.018 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Self-citationSocio-economic Position, Gender and Health
MacIntyre, S., & Hunt, K. (1997) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/135910539700200304 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Houweling, T. A. J., Kunst, A. E., Huisman, M. A., & Mackenbach, J. P. (2007) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/1475-9276-6-15 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Self-citationBatty, G. D., Der, G., MacIntyre, S., & Deary, I. J. (2006) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.38723.660637.ae · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Methodological concerns and recommendations on policy consequences of the World Health Report 2000
Almeida, C. M. V. B., Braveman, P., Gold, M. R., Szwarcwald, C. L., Ribeiro, J. M., Migliónico, A., Millar, J. S., Porto, S. M., Costa, N. D. R., Rubio, V. O., et al. (2001) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(00)04825-x · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Economic costs of health inequalities in the European Union
Mackenbach, J. P., Meerding, W. J., & Kunst, A. E. (2010) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.2010.112680 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Self-citationWhat's Wrong with Social Epidemiology, and How Can We Make It Better?
Kaplan, G. A. (2004) · Epidemiologic Reviews · doi:10.1093/epirev/mxh010 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Schaap, M. M., Kunst, A. E., Leinsalu, M., Regidor, E., Ekholm, O., Dzúrová, D., Helmert, U., Klumbienė, J., Santana, P., & Mackenbach, J. P. (2008) · Tobacco Control · doi:10.1136/tc.2007.024265 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Self-citationSingh‐Manoux, A., Dugravot, A., Shipley, M. J., Ferrie, J. E., Martikainen, P., Goldberg, M., & Zins, M. (2007) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dym170 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Chao, F., You, D., Pedersen, J., Hug, L., & Alkema, L. (2018) · The Lancet Global Health · doi:10.1016/s2214-109x(18)30059-7 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Summary Measures of Health Inequality: A Review of Existing Measures and Their Application
Schlotheuber, A., & Hosseinpoor, A. R. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19063697 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Mackenbach, J. P. (2019) · Regimes of Inequality · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198831419.001.0001 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Self-citationKatikireddi, S. V., Skivington, K., Leyland, A. H., Hunt, K., & Mercer, S. W. (2017) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-017-0913-6 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
The Ethical Imperative of Addressing Oral Health Disparities: A Unifying Framework
Lee, J. Y., & Divaris, K. (2014) · Journal of Dental Research · doi:10.1177/0022034513511821 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Socioeconomic inequality in voting participation and self-rated health
Blakely, T. A., Kennedy, B. P., & Kawachi, I. I. (2001) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.91.1.99 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Gender differences in socioeconomic inequality in mortality
Mustard, C., & Etches, J. (2003) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.57.12.974 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Hu, Y., van Lenthe, F. J., Borsboom, G., Looman, C. W. N., Bopp, M., Burström, B., Dzúrová, D., Ekholm, O., Klumbienė, J., Lahelma, E. T., et al. (2016) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2015-206780 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Self-citationSelf-Rated Health and Mortality: Short- and Long-Term Associations in the Whitehall II Study
Singh‐Manoux, A., Guéguen, A., Martikainen, P., Ferrie, J. E., Marmot, M. G., & Shipley, M. J. (2007) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e318030483a · Cited by 155 · see citing works
The Health Effects of Income Inequality: Averages and Disparities
Truesdale, B. C., & Jencks, C. (2015) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032315-021606 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Victora, C. G., Matijasevich, A., Silveira, M. P. T., Santos, I. S., Barros, A. J. D., & Barros, F. C. (2010) · Health Policy and Planning · doi:10.1093/heapol/czp065 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Martikainen, P., Adda, J., Ferrie, J. E., Smith, G. D., & Marmot, M. G. (2003) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.57.9.718 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Barr, B., Bambra, C. L., & Whitehead, M. M. (2014) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.g3231 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Kunst, A. E., Groenhof, F., Andersen, O., Borgan, J., Costa, G., Desplanques, G., FILAKTI, H., Giraldes, M. D. R., Faggiano, F., Harding, S., et al. (1999) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.89.1.47 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Self-citationOccupational class inequalities across key domains of health: Results from the Helsinki Health Study
Lahelma, E. T., Martikainen, P., Rahkonen, O., Roos, E., & Saastamoinen, P. (2005) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/cki022 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Khang, Y. (2004) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyg244 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Ernstsen, L., Strand, B. H., Nilsen, S. M., Espnes, G. A., & Krokstad, S. (2012) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-266 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
- Authors
- Mackenbach, J. P., & Kunst, A. E.
- Affiliations
- Erasmus University Rotterdam (NL)
- Venue
- Social Science & Medicine
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1997-03
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 757-771
- ISSN
- 0277-9536 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2052654293
- Cited by
- 1,343
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 47 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 56 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 68 · 2020: 68 · 2019: 90 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 66 · 2014: 56 · 2013: 59 · 2012: 55
- FWCI
- 2.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Social Science & Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Pure Amsterdam UMC (publishedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Health › Public Health and Social Inequalities
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Income, Poverty, and Inequality
- Keywords
- socioeconomic inequalities in health, summary measures, relative difference, absolute difference, occupational class, mortality, educational attainment, self-reported morbidity, Finland, Netherlands
- MeSH terms
- Europe, Finland, Health Services Research, Health Status, Humans, Models, Theoretical, Morbidity, Mortality, Netherlands, Occupations, Social Justice, Socioeconomic Factors
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
