The amygdala and emotion

“Previous functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies investigating emotional processing have shown that brain regions activated when emotional stimuli are presented include the prefrontal cortex, the anterior cingulate cortex, and other subcortical brain regions known to be associated with the BGA hypothesis,…”

“The amygdaloid complex is well-established as a key neural substrate underlying emotional responses in both human and non-human subjects (Gallagher and Chiba 1996).”

“…of the amygdala in aversively motivated learning is well established in animals and humans (for review, see Adolphs et al., 1995; Gallagher and Chiba, 1996; Maren and Fanselow, 1996; McGaugh et al., 1996; Davis, 1997; LeDoux and Muller, 1997; Phelps and Anderson, 1997; Cahill…”

“…and McDonald, 1993) (for review, see Aggleton, 1993; McDonald and White, 1993; Gallagher and Holland, 1994; Ono et al., 1995; Hatfield et al., 1996; Gallagher and Chiba, 1996; Robbins and Everitt, 1996; Hitchcott et al., 1997; Hitchcott and Phillips, 1998; Everitt et al., 1999; Holland and…”

“Single-cell recording and lesion studies also demonstrated the different involvement of each MTL structure in relational and context-dependent memory [Gallagher and Chiba, 1996; Squire, 1992; Suzuki and Eichenbaum, 2000].”

“The central nucleus of the amygdala (CEA) has repeatedly been shown in a variety of models to be important for the expression and integration of behavioral and autonomic responses to aversive stimuli (Kapp et al., 1982; Davis, 1992; Gallagher & Chiba, 1996; Maren & Fanselow, 1996; LeDoux, 2000).”

“Many researchers have implicated the amygdala in the assignment of emotional significance or value to events through associative learning (see Gallagher & Chiba, 1996, for a brief recent review).”

“In addition to the well-known role of the amygdala in emotional processing, in particular fear and/or anxiety, the transfer of emotional information via the amygdala to the visual system has been considered (Davis 1992; LeDoux 1992; Gallagher and Chiba 1996).”

“Somatic sensory, including noxious, information from the spinal dorsal horn is transmitted through the lateral thalamus to the cortical areas such as the primary and secondary somatosensory cortex and insular cortex, and then reaches the amygdala, particularly the La and BL [7,18,19].”

“The amygdala facilitates the formation of stimulus associations and helps to establish the emotional meaning of different situations [70].”

“and found these findings to be evidence of abnormal development of the autistic almond kernel [1], a view also supported by research in animals such as Bachevalier, Hagger & Mishkin [84] rhesus, as well as those of Prather et al.”

“…Fax: +81-75-7534586 The amygdala is a forebrain structure composed of several distinct subnuclei including the central (CeA), lateral and basolateral nuclei, and is thought to be a key neural substrate underlying emotional responses such as anxiety and fear (Gallagher and Chiba 1996).”

“The amygdala is a key node in human emotion processing (1) that is critical for normal behavior and mental health.”

“…of disparate aspects of information representations distributed across cortical and subcortical networks involving domain-general and domain-specific perceptual information, reward, novelty and emotional saliency (Di Martino et al. 2008; Gallagher and Chiba 1996; Hua et al. 1998; Wise 2004).”

“Amygdala modulates actin rearrangements in the dorsal hippocampus induced by conditioned drug withdrawal from acute morphine dependence through activation of -adrenoceptors The amygdala is generally thought to be a key neural substrate underlying emotional responses (Gallagher and Chiba, 1996).”

“, 2013), a brain region important for fear and emotions (Gallagher and Chiba, 1996; Aas et al., 2012b), supporting a relationship of childhood trauma with possible changes in emotional regulation.”

“Animal research (Gallagher and Chiba, 1996; LeDoux, 1998) has implicated the amygdaloid comaging 138 (2005) 247–258”

“Because of widespread connections with neocortex, thalamus and hippocampal formation BLC is regarded as `sensory input' to the amygdala [1,17,39,40,46,50,61,66] and plays a very important roles in emotional memory and learning [2,7,27,43].”

“The bilateral amygdala reduction is consistent with its central role in emotion processing, such as associating stimuli with emotional responses, enhancing memory consolidation and influencing perception of stimuli (Gallagher and Chiba, 1996; McGaugh, 2000; LeDoux, 2007).”

“…how amygdala activation results in modulation of memory storage in other brain areas by modification in neurochemical and neurohormonal systems, especially within the context of emotionally charged events (Cahill et al., 1996; Gallagher & Chiba, 1996; McGaugh & Cahill, 1997; McGaugh et al., 1996).”

“The limbic system has been implicated in the neuroanatomy of anxiety (Gray, 1990; Gallagher & Chiba, 1996).”

“…of limbic and paralimbic regions enables functional interplay between the amygdala and the anterior cingulate cortex, which may account for the emotional intensity and instinctive nature of REM dreaming (Gallagher & Chiba 1996; Maquet et al. 1996; Nofzinger et al. 1997; Wagner et al. 2001).”

“The abnormality of amygdala is presumably a major origin of anxiety pathogenesis [1,4,8-24].”

“The amygdala has a well-established role in emotion (80), and the temporal pole has been shown to play a role in cognitive perspective taking (mentalizing) and empathy (81).”

“…levels of affect lability, including increased activation in the amygdala (van Harmelen et al., 2013), associated with greater emotional reactivity (Gallagher & Chiba, 1996), and changes to the prefrontal cortex (Márquez et al., 2013), central in the generation of strategies for emotional…”

“Chronic use of opiates such as morphine is well known basolateral (BLA) nuclei, and is thought to be a key neural to lead to physical and psychological dependence, which is substrate underlying emotional responses such as anxiety characterized by the expression of withdrawal symptoms and fear in both humans and animal…”

“The amygdala represents a part of the neuronal circuitry critical for emotion and provides links between affect and cognition (Le Doux, 2000; Gallagher and Chiba, 1996).”

“There is abundant evidence that humans (Bradley et al., 1992; Gallagher and Chiba, 1996; Hamann et al., 1996) and animals (Cahill and McGaugh, 1990, 1998) remember emotionally arousing events better than neutral events.”

“The basolateral amygdala (BLA) has long been established as an integral part of the neural circuitry that regulates emotion, including fear and anxiety (Davis, 1992; Gallagher and Chiba, 1996; Tovote et al., 2015).”

“The amygdala is implicated in emotional processing, emotional learning and cognitive evaluation of emotional stimuli and it is closely connected with cortical and subcortical regions [52, 53].”

“PVN, VMN, Ce and Me are clearly involved in the central regulation and coordination of the stress response, emotional behaviours and internal homeostasis (Gallagher and Chiba, 1996; LeDoux, 2003; Maren, 1999; Toufexis et al., 2006).”

“and striatum, and participates in socio-emotional behavior [21, 50, 51].”

“…& Zelena 2013); amygdala complex, well known for its role in emotional reactivity, food-related behavior and excessive eating of palatable food (Gallagher & Chiba 1996; Holland & Gallagher 2003; Galarce et al. 2010; Pringle et al. 2011; Bohon & Stice 2012; Blasio et al. 2013); and ventral…”

“…to elucidate the neural basis of conditioned reward and aversion, and it is now clear that the amygdala plays a prominent role in conditioned emotional behavior (see Aggleton, 1993; Davis, 1992; Gallagher & Chiba, 1996; Ledoux, 1995; McDonald & White, 1993; Sarter & Markowitsch, 1985, for reviews).”

“CA1 also communicates bidirectionally with the amygdala (Pitkanen et al. 2000; Pikkarainen et al. 1999), which has been long been implicated in emotional forms of learning and conditioned fear memory (Gallagher and Chiba 1996; Paz and Pare 2013; Duvarci and Pare 2014; Janak and Tye 2015).”

“Studies with humans and animals have demonstrated that emotional information is processed differently than neutral information (Cahill & McGaugh, 1998; Gallagher & Chiba, 1996).”

“Amygdala is known to play a central function in aversive learning, response to stress, and modulation of memory by stressful experiences [27], and it was known that amygdala is a forebrain structure composed of several distinct subnuclei including central and basolateral nuclei, and is thought to be a key neural subst…”

“Rats with dorsal hippocampal lesions were impaired on both measures.”

“The amygdala plays a role in emotional l arning (26,27).”

“Via distinct cell types and connections, amygdala nuclei and subregions exert many functions, including both appetitive and defensive behaviors (Gallagher and Chiba, 1996).”

“The amygdaloid complex and the nucleus accumbens have been proposed to be involved (13,40,41).”

“…in emotion processing help encode both the positive and negative affective salience of the environment (Davis and Whalen, 2001; Gallagher and Chiba, 1996) to modulate implicit and explicit memory, heighten attention and awareness of the affective J.E. Flannery et al. / Developmental…”

“…this loss of music enjoyment is caused indirectly by a deficient sound perception or directly by the disturbance of limbic circuits, since one of the main functions of the temporal lobe is the affective toning of events and memories via the amygdala (Gallagher and Chiba, 1996; Barbas, 2000).”

“The amygdala is associated with a range of cognitive functions, including emotion, learning, memory, attention and perception.(15) Most current views of amygdala function emphasize its role in negative emotions, such as fear, and in the linking of negative emotions with other aspects of cognition, such as learning and…”

“The central nucleus of the amygdala (CEA) is involved in diverse emotional and cognitive functions related to responses of fear and orientation (1,2), defensive behavior (3,4), and cardiovascular regulation (5).”

“In addition to learning and memory, the amygdala regulates facets of affective behavior (Gallagher and Chiba, 1996).”

“Additionally, Siegel et al. (1993) demonstrated that early social deprivation resulted in an increase in the amount of nonphosphorylated neurofilament protein in hippocampal dentate gyrus granule cells in rhesus monkeys.”

“The amygdala is considered to be involved in affective modulation (43, 44) and has been implicated in LLD pathophysiology (45).”

“In the brain, which is the main site of FMR2 expression in adult tissues, high levels are observed in the hippocampus and amygdala (40,46), two regions notoriously associated with learning processes (47,48).”

“…and in humans, indicates that the amygdala is a critical brain region for the regulation of affective behavior and neurochemical responses to stress, suggesting a strong involvement of this limbic area in anxiety, fear and emotional memory (Aggleton, 1993; Gallagher & Chiba, 1996; LeDoux, 2000).”

“Thus, emotional expression may be mediated by neural connections from the lateral to the central nucleus of the amygdala (Le Doux, 1996), which, through its projections to hypothalamus and brainstem areas, is thereby able to coordinate the behavioral, endocrine and autonomic responses that form an integrated emotional…”

“…example, has been shown to be essential for Pavlovian conditioning tasks, particularly aversive tasks (Lavond et al. 1993; McDonald and White 1993; Gallagher and Chiba 1996), whereas the dorsal striatum and hippocampus have been shown to be essential for learning tasks involving either a response…”

“Areas in the limbic region of the forebrain like the amygdala and hippocampus were found to have functions related to sexual behavior and associated emotional responses [9,10].”

“Amygdala is a crucial area for regulating emotion, memory, and attention (Gallagher & Chiba, 1996), and also an important target for the treatment of depression.”

“…nuclei that together play a crucial role in orchestrating emotional responses, autonomic behaviors, neuroendocrine activity and a variety of cognitive functions (Aggleton 1993; Gallagher & Chiba 1996; Cahill & McGaugh 1998; Davis & Shi 2000; Everitt et al. 2003; LeDoux 2003, 2007; Sah et al. 2003).”