Forward modeling allows feedback control for fast reaching movements

“The frontal regions mediate the selection of alternative motor options in a given context, whereas the cerebellum plays a crucial role in the control of the movement by means of feedforward and attention direction (Desmurget and Grafton 2000).”

“25,26 To date, there has been no examination of changes in power at different frequencies following concussion.”

“18,20,21 Capsaicin-induced tonic pain has been found to disrupt proper FB motor controls.”

“These models are critical in motor control since they allow compensating for transduction, transmission and processing biophysical delays [10, 11].”

“It has been proposed that sensorimotor control system is utilizing internal forward model of the body and world to predict sensory signals before actual sensory feedback is acquired (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000; Wolpert and Ghahramani, 2000; Shadmehr et al., 2010).”

“…investigations notably concern mechanisms that enable robotic agents to acquire new behaviours by observing and generalizing the behaviour of other agents ([Dillmann, 2005] and [Kruger, 2007]), and feed-back mechanisms that enable agents to control their own behaviour (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000).”

“The way vision, proprioception and information derived from the motor commands are differently processed to compute the initial state of the motor apparatus or hand trajectory formation or movement execution errors has been extensively illustrated with reaching or matching tasks (see for reviews Desmurget et al. 1998,…”

“Importantly, such internal models permit feedforward control, allowing the human to predict the necessary inputs to produce the desired output trajectory, potentially increasing task performance and decreasing reliance on sensory feedback (Gawthrop et al., 2009, 2011; Desmurget and Grafton, 2000).”

“generally, control casted in termed of motor programs fails to reflect the flexible nature of motor behaviors (see below; Desmurget and Grafton 2000; Todorov and Jordan 2002).”

“It seems likely that an optimal movement control strategy would most likely involve both frontal and posterior systems operating in both feedback and feedforward manners ( Desmurget and Grafton, 2000; Holroyd and Coles, 2002; Seidler et al., 2004).”

“is to incorporate both forward and inverse internal models into a limb motor control system (Wolpert and Kawato 1998; Bhushan and Shadmehr 1999; Desmurget and Grafton 2000; Wolpert and Ghahramani 2000).”

“Finally, the rapid nature of the task requires participants to preplan their movements, emphasizing executive function (Casamento-Moran et al. 2017; Delmas et al. 2021; Desmurget and Grafton 2000; Ghez and Gordon 1987; Seidler et al. 2004; Shadmehr et al. 2010).”

“This would be detrimental to online control of fast and fluent movement, for instance, when the sys-tem must correct the movement in response to perturbations (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000).”

“Conversely, TON contraction had a longer duration, and during this time, information from sensory receptors could interfere with the ongoing task ( Desmurget & Grafton, 2000 ).”

“In feedforward control, once participants learn the task, internal models are made to anticipate the appropriate force (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Grafton, Schmitt, Van Horn, & Diedrichsen, 2008).”

“…portion of target-directed movement manifests from pre-11 response planning, where an internal representation or motor program that models the efferent and reafferent (response-produced) signals is configured (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Wolpert & Ghrahmanani, 2000; Wolpert, Miall, & Kawato, 1998).”

“…to coordinative control arises from internalization of feedback, i.e., development of a predictive/anticipatory model of the sensory consequences of outgoing motor commands, which allows for diminished reliance on external sensory feedback (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Wolpert & Kawato, 1998).”

“The forward model is updated/fine-tuned during movement execution by incoming proprioceptive and visual inputs (for a review, see, Desmurget and Grafton, 2000; Shadmehr et al., 2010).”

“which help in estimation and prediction have resulted in the emergence of concepts such as the Kalman filter as an example of a predictor [19–21].”

“…and ventral visual pathways (Goodale and Milner, 1992), mainly involving the PPC and SMA (that have an updating effect of on visual feedback-based, active motor planning, motor attention, and motor intentions) (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000; Jeannerod et al., 1994; IkkaiandCurtis,2011).”

“…or those that are highly sensible to external perturbations requires instead anticipatory (feed-forward) adjustments through internal (forward) models (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Friston, 2011; Kawato, 1999; Pezzulo & Castelfranchi, 2009; Shadmehr et al., 2010; Wolpert, Gharamani, & Jordan, 1995).”

“These action-outcome relations have been linked to the concepts of internal forward models (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000; Kawato, 1999) and ideomotor codes (Hommel et al., 2001); see also (Maye and Engel, 2011; Pezzulo and Calvi, 2011; Roy, 2005).”

“feedforward and feedback mechanisms (Woodworth 1899; Desmurget and Grafton 2000).”

“This paradigm has been mployed to understand the numerous processes of feedack control occurring between the eye and the hand uring pointing movements (Pélisson et al., 1986; Hoff and rbib, 1993; Desmurget and Grafton, 2000).”

“The presence of corollary discharge in eye movement and many action processes is well recorded (Miall and Wolpert 1996; Sabes 2000; Desmurget and Grafton 2000).”

“Such models have been used to describe reaching movements or planning of movement trajectories using Kalman filters and Bayesian statistics for optimal state estimation (Kawato, 1999; Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Sabes, 2000).”

“Predictive motor control is underpinned by the interplay between brain development and experience (Wolpert et al., 1998; Desmurget and Grafton, 2000; Buneo and Andersen, 2006).”

“Additionally, the cerebellum’s projection to the posterior parietal cortex (Clower et al., 2001) has been implicated for generating sensory prediction(e.g., Della-Maggiore et al., 2004; Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; also see Blakemore & Sirigu, 2003 for a detailed review).”

“Any mismatch will lead to corrective commands, hence feedback control, and an update of the model to improve the action performance (for review, see Desmurget & Grafton, 2000).”

“While a detailed movement information may be available in several movement behaviors [6], albeit with delay and noise, saccades occur at fast time-scales (20–100 ms) that result in the absence of such a precise temporal information.”

“Long transport delays are often cited as the main reason for relatively complex delay-compensation schemes such as forward models (e.g., Miall et al., 1993; Kawato, 1999; Desmurget and Grafton, 2000).”

“Much of the evidence indicates the ability of the biological systems to maintain fast and accurate eye/limb movements during the disruption of the sensory feedback that could help in online control of the movement (Desmurget and Grafton 2000).”

“Instead of relying on a feedforward mechanism through APAs to correct perturbation-induced movements (Desmurget and Grafton 2000; Fautrelle and Bonnetblanc 2012), older adults tend to use a reactive strategy because the pre-activation of muscles needed to correct the movements is substantially delayed (Aruin and Latas…”

“The early impulse regulation modulates limb velocity and direction, and depends on feedforward processes involving a comparison between the predicted and actual sensory consequences (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Wolpert, Miall, & Kawato, 1998).”

“An alternative model that integrates the above mechanisms is the ‘forward model’, which assumes that the central nervous system can learn to estimate the sensory outcome of a specific motor commands using an internal simulation (Wolpert and Kawato, 1998; Desmurget and Grafton, 2000) and this prediction is constantly u…”

“Humans, on the other hand, use both feedback and feedforward (or open loop) control when controlling their body [1].”

“…people have been drawn to models of motor control that are open-loop (a closed-loop control scheme with significantly delayed feedback would face significant problems) except for the very end of the movement, where feedback is presumed to be used to make refinements (see Desmurget et al. 2000).”

“Additional tests of JD emphasize the importance of efference copy and internal models in motor control (e.g., Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Kawato, 1999; Harris & Wolpert, 1998).”

“In biological systems, theoretical studies suggest that some animals use predictive internal models to mitigate the effect of delays (More and Donelan, 2018; Li et al., 2023; Desmurget and Grafton, 2000).”

“…to both sensory modalities (Rizzolatti et al., 1981a,b; Snyder et al., 1998; Bakola et al., 2010; Omrani et al., 2016; Gamberini et al., 2017) and are likely involved with estimating a common limb state (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000; Shadmehr and Krakauer, 2008; Scott, 2012; Takei et al., 2021).”

“Sensory predictions could then be compared with visual, tactile, and proprioceptive inputs during the grasping phase to facilitate online movement corrections and evaluate the success of the generated motor plan (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000; Wolpert and Ghahramani, 2000; Wolpert et al., 2011).”

“In terms of predicting the effects of reduced vision on each of our tasks, the targets presented were all comfortably above the visual threshold, so the parsimonious explanation for any reduced performance would be that, whilst binocular summation activates more neurones, creating a stronger neural signal that might b…”

“The dependent variables were (1) spatial error, (2) temporal error, (3) spatial variability, (4) temporal variability, (5) EMG burst amplitude, (6) EMG burst time-to-peak amplitude, (7) EMG burst amplitude variability, and (8) EMG burst time-to-peak variability.”

“strategies to generate rapid reaching movements [48], [49].”

“2009) and feedback mechanisms (Desmurget and Grafton 2000; Lowrey et al. 2017) to maintain and restore equilibrium.”

“Instead, internal models of the body in the brain allow for ‘forward’ predictions of the likely sensory consequences of ongoing actions so that these likely consequences can be taken into account when correcting movements, in advance of actual feedback (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000).”

“This process is called an internal feedback loop and it enables the rapid correction of an ongoing movement [27, 28].”

“The simulation-based prediction of the consequences of the motor commands makes possible their anticipated adjustment (see e.g. Blakemore, Goodbody, & Wolpert, 1998; Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Wolpert, Ghahramani, & Jordan, 1995; Wolpert & Kawato, 1998).”

“1993), postulates for motor planning (Desmurget and Grafton 2000), and identifying kinematic parameters for movement control objectives (Meyer, Abrams et al.”

“In a feedforward model, continuous comparisons between predicted and actual statesmay yield anticipation of future errors, so that feedback can be used with a negligible delay [46].”

“It has been shown that reaching movements are controlled by using both feedforward and feedback loops ( Desmurget & Grafton, 2000 ).”

“The feedforward control comprises a rough motor plan and predictions assembled before movement onset which is updated and refined through powerful sensory feedback loops (for reviews see Miall et al. 2001; Desmurget and Grafton 2000).”

“Since the pioneer work of Woodworth there has been a wealth of evidence for the effects of on line control in reaching and pointing arm movements (Desmurget and Grafton 2000; Elliot et al. 2001).”

“These predictions are compared with actual feedback, allowing for rapid error correction 15–17 .”

“…to this model, goal-directed movements comprise two components: (1) a ballistic component, in which a limb moves an object to the vicinity of a target, followed by (2) a corrective component, in which the limb places the object into the target (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Urbin et al., 2011).”