Forward modeling allows feedback control for fast reaching movements

“Considering the involvement of the PPC in the internal error detection (for a review see Desmurget and Grafton, 2000), we propose that posterior regions process the motor error by detecting the discrepancy between the executed and the expected action, as evoked by the stimulus features.”

“…architectures of the model (Figure 1) could generate fast convergence and stable outputs in the initial learning stages without the need for traditional feedback controllers widely used in robotic literature (Kawato and Gomi, 1992; Stroeve, 1997; Desmurget and Grafton, 2000; Kalveram et al., 2005).”

“HYPOTHESIS AND THEORY ARTICLE published: 03 February 2014 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00050 The role of differential delays in integrating transient visual and proprioceptive information”

“Although there is evidence to suggest that even rapid movements can be updated online through sensory feedback (Desmurget and Grafton 2000), it is thought that the control of ballistic movements is primarily governed by a predictive motor plan, known as a forward model (Miall and Wolpert 1996).”

“From a computational perspective, internal state estimation is necessary for human motor control to compensate for inherent delays and noise in both efferent motor and afferent sensory signal pathways ( Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Wolpert & Ghahramani, 2000; Wolpert, 1997; Wolpert, Ghahramani, & Jordan, 1995).”

“It has been suggested that the updated visual signal is used by the nervous system to adjust the ongoing hand trajectory (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000, 2003; Goodale, Pélisson, & Prablanc, 1986; Pélisson, Prablanc, Goodale, & Jeannerod, 1986; Prablanc & Martin, 1992; Prablanc et al., 1986).”

“Indeed, were the latter the only feedback mechanism available, neural processing delays would render correction of movement in response to unexpected environmental changes slow and, subsequently, often inaccurate (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000).”

“However, m‐CIMT did not improve efficiency of movement execution (normalized movement time) or movement smoothness (normalized movement units) as it happens in conventional rehabilitation.[29]”

“In reaching and grasping movements, feed-forward control has been incorporated into a forward model that predicts the behavior of the motor system, which can then be compared with the actual movement (see Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Wolpert, Ghahramani, & Flanagan, 2001).”

“In addition, there are feedback mechanisms that allow for correction of the movement during execution 1 3 (e.g., Desmurget and Grafton 2000).”

“Accordingly, forward models provide stability for the nervous system beyond that offered by relatively slow corticosensory processing (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000).”

“It has been argued that motor control models that are solely based on planning (or feedback) mechanisms do not fully capture the process underlying sensorimotor control, but hybrid models combining both planning and feedback mechanisms are more representative of the actual process (Desmurget and Grafton 2000).”

“Traditional theories have emphasized the existence of different controllers for feedforward and feedback control (Desmurget and Grafton 2000; Kawato 1999).”

“In particular, the necessity to reconsider the corrective submovement theory is supported by recent findings of other researchers that have addressed the issue of accuracy regulation from different perspectives (Bedard and Proteau 2004; Desmurget and Grafton 2000; Khan and Franks 2003; Khan et al. 2003; Saunders and K…”

“This sensory information can be received from vision, proprioception, audition, the vestibular system, and internal models that can predict the motion (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000).”

“Indeed, models for the motor control of arm movements are actively discussed amongst researchers [7].”

“This is considered as a limitation for our object handover application, where human behavior studies have shown that the transition in between the feedforward (or shape-driven) and the feedback (or goaldriven) strategies tends to occur at the middle of the reaching motion [5].”

“…empirical evidence suggests that the brain integrates sensory and motor signals using such internal models to perform a variety of tasks, such as predicting sensory information and optimal motor control (Todorov, 2004; Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Kawato, 1999; Wolpert, Ghahramani, & Jordan, 1995).”

“Is reaching risky?—In reaching for an object, the action is normally guided by an established forward internal model that relies on sensory information of the body’s state and the target location (34).”

“In addition to that, during action execution internal (forward) models could be adopted as well to adapt the motor plan to the fast dynamics of the environment, in the cases in which feedback is too slow (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000; Kawato, 1999).”

“…reported automatic on-line adjustments for hand spatial location and grip aperture (Bard et al. 1999; Connolly and Goodale 1999; Day and Lyon 2000; Desmurget and Grafton 2000; Desmurget et al. 1999, 2001; Goodale et al. 1986; Grea et al. 2002; Pélisson et al. 1986; Prablanc and Martin 1992;…”

“Adams 1971; Desmurget and Grafton 2000; Schmidt 1975).”

“This considerable delay prevents humans from using feedback information to control self-movement, and predictive movement control is required to compensate for the delay (Miall and Wolpert, 1996; Desmurget and Grafton, 2000; Wolpert and Flanagan, 2001).”

“…of movement are thought to play a critical role in a number of motor control processes, including mental rehearsal and observational learning (Jeannerod, 2001), motor planning (Wolpert & Ghahramani, 2000), and online movement control (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Izawa & Shadmehr, 2011).”

“According to the action monitoring model, the action monitor is a feed-forward control mechanism that is used to inhibit and correct a faulty response (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Rodrı́guez-Fornells, Kurzbuch, &Münte, 2002).”

“Where discrepancies arise, error signals are generated and relayed back to the controller to be integrated with the unfolding motor command, allowing for rapid adjustments to limb dynamics should they be necessary (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000).”

“Importantly, the timing of the N100 was similar to the minimum time believed to be required for feedback-reliant control processes (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Jeannerod, 1988; Keele & Posner, 1968; Paillard, 1996) and as such they concluded that the N100 may be related to the visual processing that…”

“Especially, the noteworthy findings were improvements in the torque generated by the knee extensor, ankle plantarflexor, and hip flexor muscles in this study, which have been correlated with gait performance [23].”

“During physical training, the estimated state of the motor system can be employed to refine future motor commands by generating an internal training signal that modifies plastic neural processes (Wolpert et al., 1995; Kawato, 1999; Desmurget and Grafton, 2000).”

“All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmp.2013.06.005 Miller, & Houk, 2007; Morasso, Casadio, Mohan, & Zenzeri, 2010; Morasso et al., 2010), although others dispute this point of view (see Desmurget and Grafton (2000) for a review).”

“It has also been confirmed indirectly in behavioral studies that ECs are involved in movement error correction (Angel 1976; Desmurget and Grafton 2000).”

“The presence of corollary discharge in eye movem and many action processes is well recorded [30,35,85,108] .”

“…that uses efference copy and an internal forward model in combination with afferent information and prior knowledge to best estimate the system state (e.g., Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Kawato, 1999; Krakauer & Mazzoni, 2011; Shadmehr et al., 2010; Wolpert & Miall, 1996; Wolpert & Flanagan, 2009).”

“Forward models serve to emulate actions by predicting the ensuing sensorimotor states (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000); a comparison between the predicted action effect and the desired state yields a prediction error that can be used to optimize the selection of those actions that are adequate for…”

“The brain is thought to generate such an internal forward model of the arm to reduce the instability in movements that would occur if the system relied solely on the relatively slow visual and proprioceptive signals from the periphery for feedback (Wolpert and Miall, 1996; Desmurget and Grafton, 2000).”

“(Desmurget and Grafton 2000).”

“Copyright 2008 Psychonomic Society, Inc. 306 At least since Woodworth (1899), there has been continued interest in the role that visual information plays in the control of human motor performance (cf. Carlton, 1992; Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Elliott, 1990).”

“While it is rarely disputed that action control requires sensorimotor prediction (e.g., Desmurget and Grafton, 2000; Kim et al., 2019; Hemed et al., 2020, 2022), the above emerging evidence suggests that the influence on perception is not necessarily attenuating.”

“Internal models simulate the consequence of an action (Miall and Wolpert, 1996; Wolpert and Flanagan, 2001) and stress the role of sensory feedback in motor control (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000).”

“For the online control of actions, anticipatory control loops are suggested which predict the sensory feedback (forward modeling) due to a chosen motor program (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000; Shadmehr et al., 2010).”

“…that is determined from this comparison is then used to modulate an inverse model, which amends the movement based on the expected next state and the desired final state of the performer (Davidson & Wolpert, 2005; Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Miall & Wolpert, 1996; see also von Holst, 1954).”

“[7,38]), these data strongly suggest that estimates of current hand location may be derived from efference copy signals and that this estimate may, in turn, play a role in the generation of accurate motor plans for reaching.”

“Feedforward control (Desmurget and Grafton 2000) uses sensory information prior to the execution of movement, using an internal representation built up on the basis of previous experience.”

“Generally, the starting point, which is the representation of the initial position of the body part involved in the movement, is computed through the integration of visual and proprioceptive information (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000).”

“…(Goodale and Milner 1992; Goodale and Haffenden 1998; Gréa et al. 2002; Milner et al. 2003), with a prominent role for the PPC (Desmurget et al. 1999; Pisella et al. 2000; Desmurget et al. 2001; Reichenbach et al. 2011; see Gaveau et al. 2014; Gomi 2008; Desmurget and Grafton 2000 for reviews).”

“…parietal cortex (visuomotor) and temporal-parietal junction (auditory-motor) that serve a sensory feedback control function for motor coordination (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Diedrichsen et al., 2010; Fogassi et al., 2001; Golfinopoulos et al., 2011; Hickok, 2012; Houde&Nagarajan, 2011; Perkell,…”

“These internal representations are essential for predicting the outcomes of movement and making needed online adjustments to maintain movement accuracy (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000).”

“First, it tells us that the movement modulation observed in the target-only condition does not simply result from a comparison between the location of the target as determined by foveal and extra-foveal signals and the position of one’s hand as determined by either or both proprioceptive feedback and/or forward modeli…”

“It is widely known that the cerebellum is essential in motor learning and control, particularly for the precise control of movements (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000; Garrido et al., 2013; Kalveram et al., 2005; Kawato and Gomi, 1992; Moustafa et al., 2013; Sergio et al., 2005; Stroeve, 1997).”

“2009; Wiestler and Diedrichsen 2013; Wymbs and Grafton 2015) and theory (Desmurget and Grafton 2000; Mostofsky and Ewen 2011) therefore suggest that the left IPL is important for the expression of forward action models, which contribute by means of rapid online correction during movement to avoid costly feedback-drive…”

“Current accounts of motor control posit that estimates of the position of the limb during movement are derived from both sensory feedback (primarily from vision and proprioception) and predicted from efference copy using a “forward model” (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000; Gritsenko et al., 2009).”

“This might be because of the fact that the ballistic, preprogrammed, and purely executed part of the movement is predominant in a rather simple aiming task as the one implemented in the present experiment (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000).”

“During movement execution, visual and proprioceptive feedback are integrated with predictions generated from the internal model, which are used to update the motor plan to correct for errors in the initial motor command and/or unexpected perturbations [14,81,82,83].”

“To cope with noise, successful motor behaviour benefits from anticipatory mechanisms in the CNS, which rely on internal models of the future outcome of a voluntary action (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000).”

“Such a model would allow the central nervous system to adequately pre-plan muscle activity required to perform sitting pivot transfer before motiondependant feedback becomes available (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000).”

“The cerebellum is then able to modulate the ongoing stream of motor commands to correct anticipated errors, either through connections to SMA, or via a more direct modulation of the descending motor pathway via the red nucleus (86).”

“The CIT principle emphasizes massive practice of affected limbs, which induces more efficient preplanning of movements and, thus, reduces the reaction time in reaching to press the task target (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Wu, Chen, et al., 2007).”

“For responses to target displacement, it has been suggested that the posterior parietal cortex is involved in the continuous error correction, in which a predictive forward model of the hand movement is computed (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000).”

“The task of precisely guiding the fingers near the appropriate contact points can be left to the slower second phase that can be controlled online based on sensory feedback or on feedforward predictive models (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Wolpert, 1997).”

“An action is felt as self-generated if the efference copy of a motor plan generated by a forward model matches the actual sensory effects of the action (Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Kawato, 1999; Wolpert & Ghahramani, 2000).”

“The computation of a forward model contributes to predictive control in the presence of considerable delays in sensory feedback (Desmurget and Grafton, 2000).”

“…carried out the movement along with the sensory consequences that the movement is likely to generate (sensory) predictions (Blakemore & Sirigu, 2003; Davidson & Wolpert, 2005; Desmurget & Grafton, 2000; Grush, 2004; Johansson & Flanagan, 2009; Wolpert & Fla-nagan, 2001; Wolpert & Miall, 1996).”