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Cited by 89Regulation of Appetite and ObesityDietary Effects on HealthNutrition, Health and Food Behavior

Increased meal frequency does not promote greater weight loss in subjects who were prescribed an 8-week equi-energetic energy-restricted diet

Open access
Cameron, Jameason D., Cyr, Marie-Josée, Doucet, Éric·2010·British Journal of Nutrition
DOI 10.1017/s0007114509992984
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Abstract

There have been reports of an inverse relationship between meal frequency (MF) and adiposity. It has been postulated that this may be explained by favourable effects of increased MF on appetite control and possibly on gut peptides as well. The main goal of the present study was to investigate whether using a high MF could lead to a greater weight loss than that obtained with a low MF under conditions of similar energy restriction. Subjects were randomised into two treatment arms (high MF = 3 meals+3 snacks/d or low MF = 3 meals/d) and subjected to the same dietary energy restriction of − 2931 kJ/d for 8 weeks. Sixteen obese adults (n 8 women and 8 men; age 34·6 (sd 9·5); BMI 37·1 (sd 4·5) kg/m 2) completed the study. Overall, there was a 4·7 % decrease in body weight (P < 0·01); similarly, significant decreases were noted in fat mass ( − 3·1 (sd 2·9) kg;P < 0·01), lean body mass ( − 2·0 (sd 3·1) kg;P < 0·05) and BMI ( − 1·7 (sd 0·8) kg/m 2;P < 0·01). However, there were NS differences between the low- and high-MF groups for adiposity indices, appetite measurements or gut peptides (peptide YY and ghrelin) either before or after the intervention. We conclude that increasing MF does not promote greater body weight loss under the conditions described in the present study.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In obese adults completing an 8-week energy-restricted diet, assigning three meals plus three snacks daily did not produce greater weight loss than three meals daily. Appetite ratings and total PYY/ghrelin profiles also showed no clear advantage of higher meal frequency.

Key findings

  • Sixteen obese adults (8 women, 8 men; age 34.6 ± 9.5 years; BMI 37.1 ± 4.5 kg/m²) completed the study. Overall body weight decreased by 4.7% (P<0.01), with reported reductions in fat mass (3.1 ± 2.9 kg), lean body mass (2.0 ± 3.1 kg), and BMI (1.7 ± 0.8 kg/m²).
  • No significant differences appeared between low-meal-frequency and high-meal-frequency groups for body weight loss (low frequency 5.3 ± 3.1 kg vs high frequency 4.6 ± 2.4 kg) or other adiposity measures.
  • Appetite ratings changed over the 6-hour test (P<0.01), but meal-frequency and meal-frequency × weight-loss effects were not significant.
  • Total ghrelin showed time and weight-loss effects (P<0.01), with no meal-frequency or interaction effects. Total PYY showed significant time and time × weight-loss effects (P<0.01), and the text reports a significant time × meal-frequency effect (P<0.05); meal-frequency and meal-frequency × weight-loss effects were not significant.

Methods

  • Randomized parallel trial comparing high meal frequency (3 meals + 3 snacks/day) with low meal frequency (3 meals/day), both prescribed the same 8-week energy restriction. Eighteen subjects were recruited and 16 completed.
  • Participants were obese, non-diabetic, non-smoking, sedentary, weight-stable adults aged 18–55; premenopausal women with regular menstrual cycles were included. Measures included body weight, DXA body composition, visual analogue appetite ratings, and fasting plus hourly blood samples over 6 hours for total PYY and total ghrelin.
  • Repeated-measures ANOVA used meal frequency as a between-subject factor, with significance set at P<0.05.

Limitations

  • The paper does not state a formal limitations section.
  • Evident from the text: the small sample of 16 completers and the short 8-week intervention limit statistical power and generalizability.
  • Evident from the authors’ discussion: the dietary manipulation may not have been strong enough to produce PYY or ghrelin changes that would meaningfully affect appetite or energy intake; conclusions are restricted to the described conditions.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1017/s0007114509992984

Cites

16 of 16 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 12 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    The decrease in lean body mass did not differ between the low-meal-frequency and high-meal-frequency groups.

    “The decrease in fat mass, lean body mass and BMI was not different between the low-MF and high-MF groups.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants in both groups adhered to the prescribed equi-energetic energy restriction.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants in the high-meal-frequency group actually consumed three meals plus three snacks per day, and those in the low-meal-frequency group actually consumed three meals per day.
    • Rests on an assumption: The study had sufficient statistical power to detect a difference in weight loss between the meal-frequency groups.
  • Findingown data

    Weight loss had a significant effect on total ghrelin (P<0.01).

    “and weight loss (P, 0•01) were observed (Fig. 1(a)).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The decrease in BMI did not differ between the low-meal-frequency and high-meal-frequency groups.

    “The decrease in fat mass, lean body mass and BMI was not different between the low-MF and high-MF groups.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants in both groups adhered to the prescribed equi-energetic energy restriction.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants in the high-meal-frequency group actually consumed three meals plus three snacks per day, and those in the low-meal-frequency group actually consumed three meals per day.
    • Rests on an assumption: The study had sufficient statistical power to detect a difference in weight loss between the meal-frequency groups.
  • Findingown data

    There were no effects of weight loss or meal frequency by weight loss interaction on the integrated response (area under the curve) of appetite measurements.

    “No effects of weight loss or MF by weight loss interaction were noted for the integrated response (area under the curve) of appetite measurements.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The study had sufficient statistical power to detect a difference in weight loss between the meal-frequency groups.
  • Findingown data

    In obese adults who completed the 8-week energy-restricted programme, body weight decreased by 4.7% overall (P<0.01).

    “Overall, there was a 4•7 % decrease in body weight (P,0•01);”
    • Also stated in: § Anthropometric measures · plain
      “A 4•7 % decrease in body weight was observed after 8 weeks (P, 0•01) (Table 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 8
  • May combine two claims. 5
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 3

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Total ghrelin varied significantly over the 6-hour period (P<0.001).

    “As expected, significant effects of time (P, 0•001) delineating the variations of total ghrelin throughout the 6-h period”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There were no significant effects of meal frequency or meal frequency by weight loss interaction on appetite measurements.

    “There were NS effects of MF or MF by weight loss interaction for appetite measurements.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants in the high-meal-frequency group actually consumed three meals plus three snacks per day, and those in the low-meal-frequency group actually consumed three meals per day.
    • Rests on an assumption: The study had sufficient statistical power to detect a difference in weight loss between the meal-frequency groups.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    There was a significant weight loss by time interaction for peptide YY (P<0.01).

    “Finally, a significant weight loss by time interaction for peptide YY was also noted (P, 0•01).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Lean body mass decreased significantly by 2.0 kg (P<0.05) after the 8-week weight loss programme.

    “lean body mass (22•0 (SD 3•1) kg; P,0•05)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Fat mass decreased significantly by 3.1 kg (P<0.01) after the 8-week weight loss programme.

    “significant decreases were noted in fat mass (23•1 (SD 2•9) kg; P,0•01)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    BMI decreased significantly by 1.7 kg/m2 (P<0.01) after the 8-week weight loss programme.

    “BMI (21•7 (SD 0•8) kg/m 2 ; P, 0•01)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There were no significant effects of meal frequency or meal frequency by weight loss interaction on total ghrelin.

    “NS effects of MF (low-MF v. high-MF) or MF by weight loss interactions were observed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants in the high-meal-frequency group actually consumed three meals plus three snacks per day, and those in the low-meal-frequency group actually consumed three meals per day.
    • Rests on an assumption: The study had sufficient statistical power to detect a difference in weight loss between the meal-frequency groups.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Total peptide YY varied significantly over the 6-hour period (P<0.001).

    “Significant effects of time delineating the variations of total peptide YY throughout the 6-h period were also observed (P, 0•001)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Women and men were stratified equally in both groups.

    “Women (n 8) and men (n 8) were stratified equally in both groups.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Increasing meal frequency did not change the daily profiles of peptide YY or ghrelin, nor did it favourably impact appetite parameters.

    “According to the present results, increasing MF did not change the daily profiles of peptide YY or ghrelin, nor did it favourably impact appetite parameters.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants in the high-meal-frequency group actually consumed three meals plus three snacks per day, and those in the low-meal-frequency group actually consumed three meals per day.
    • Rests on an assumption: The study had sufficient statistical power to detect a difference in weight loss between the meal-frequency groups.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 6-hour measurements of appetite and gut peptides are representative of daily profiles.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Controversy persists regarding the effects of increased feeding frequency.

    “but controversy persists (9 -12) .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [9] source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [10] source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [11] source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [12]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Increased feeding frequency has been proposed to convey favourable effects on body weight, adiposity, and energy intake.

    “Increased feeding frequency has often been proposed to convey favourable effects on body weight (1 -4) , adiposity (5,6) and energy intake (7,8)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 8 sources checked
    • cites [1] source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [2] source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [3] source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [4]

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [5]

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [6]

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [7] source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [8] source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Eighteen subjects were recruited, and sixteen completed the study.

    “Eighteen subjects (nine men and nine women) were recruited; of these subjects, sixteen completed the study (eight men and eight women), whose results are presented herein.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Participants were randomised to high-meal-frequency or low-meal-frequency groups in a parallel design.

    “The present study was conducted as a randomised approach with two parallel treatment groups.Participants were randomised to one of the two groups as follows: the high MF (3 meals þ 3 snacks/d) and the low MF (3 meals/d).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Under the study conditions, all three hypotheses (better appetite regulation and compliance, favourable gut peptide profiles, and greater weight loss with increased meal frequency) were rejected.

    “Under the conditions described in the present study, all three hypotheses were rejected.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants in both groups adhered to the prescribed equi-energetic energy restriction.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants in the high-meal-frequency group actually consumed three meals plus three snacks per day, and those in the low-meal-frequency group actually consumed three meals per day.
    • Rests on an assumption: The study had sufficient statistical power to detect a difference in weight loss between the meal-frequency groups.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 6-hour measurements of appetite and gut peptides are representative of daily profiles.
15 of 15

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants in both groups adhered to the prescribed equi-energetic energy restriction.

    “Both groups were prescribed a 22931 kJ/d energy restriction for a period of 8 weeks”
    “Because all subjects were prescribed a 2931 kJ deficit during the weight loss programme, the resulting daily energy intake varied among subjects.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants in the high-meal-frequency group actually consumed three meals plus three snacks per day, and those in the low-meal-frequency group actually consumed three meals per day.

    “Participants were randomised to one of the two groups as follows: the high MF (3 meals þ 3 snacks/d) and the low MF (3 meals/d).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The study had sufficient statistical power to detect a difference in weight loss between the meal-frequency groups.

    “Sixteen obese adults (n 8 women and 8 men; age 34•6 (SD 9•5); BMI 37•1 (SD 4•5) kg/m 2 ) completed the study.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The 6-hour measurements of appetite and gut peptides are representative of daily profiles.

    “During the second day of measurements before and after weight loss, appetite ratings and blood samples were taken fasting and hourly for 6 h for the two groups (high-MF and low-MF), while subjects were either served three meals (low-MF group) or three meals and three snacks (high-MF group) according to their respective dietary restriction.”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • In a study by Cameron and investigators, 16 obese men and women assigned to six meals per day or three meals per day for eight weeks showed no significant differences in body mass, obesity indices, appetite, or ghrelin between conditions.

    “Changes in body mass, obesity indices, appetite, and ghrelin were measured at the end of the eight-week study, and no significant differences in any of the measured endpoints were found between conditions.”

    From International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutrient timing (2017) · cites this paper as [142]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Discussion denies a peptide YY profile change reported in Results

    Major

    The Results state that meal frequency significantly affected the six-hour peptide YY profile. The Discussion says increasing meal frequency did not change that profile.

  • Figure caption calls the same peptide YY interaction significant and nonsignificant

    Minor

    The caption first reports a significant time-by-meal-frequency interaction for peptide YY, then says that interaction was nonsignificant.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. 2003, Clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and management of diabetes in Canada, Can J Diabetes, 27, S1

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Cameron, J. D., Cyr, M.-J., & Doucet, É.
Affiliations
University of Ottawa (CA)
Corresponding author
Doucet, Éric
ORCID
Venue
British Journal of Nutrition
Publisher
Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published
2009-11-30
Volume
103
Issue
8
Pages
1098-1101
ISSN
  • 0007-1145 (ISSN-L)
  • 1475-2662
DOI
10.1017/s0007114509992984
OpenAlex
W2102848237
Semantic Scholar
7ce353d261bf11972954159a3d4f99c92db992d1
Cited by
89
References
16
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 2
FWCI
2.09
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified)
Locations
  • British Journal Of Nutrition (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
Canadian Institutes of Health Research
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Dietary Effects on Health
  • Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
Keywords
meal frequency, weight loss, caloric restriction, obesity, appetite, gut peptides, ghrelin, peptide YY, fat mass, lean body mass, adiposity
MeSH terms
Adipose Tissue, Adult, Appetite, Diet, Reducing, Eating, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Time Factors, Weight Loss, Body Mass Index, Peptide YY, Adiposity, Ghrelin

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