The DOI matches its Crossref record; 30 of the 30 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 37 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The Influence of Planning and Task Type on Second Language Performance
Open accessAbstract
This study focuses on the impact of different variables on the nature of language performance in the context of task-based instruction. Characteristics of tasks are discussed, and then a framework is offered that can organize the nature of task-based instruction and relevant research. The framework is used to generate predictions regarding the effects of three different tasks (Personal Information Exchange, Narrative, and Decision-Making) and three different implementation conditions for each task (unplanned, planned but without detail, detailed planning) on the variables of fluency, complexity, and accuracy. The study reports strong effects of planning on fluency and clear effects also on complexity, with a linear relationship between degree of planning and degree of complexity. However, a more complex relationship was discovered between planning and accuracy, with the most accurate performance produced by the less detailed planners. In addition, interactions were found between task type and planning conditions, such that the effects of planning were greater with the Narrative and Decision-Making tasks than with the Personal Information Exchange task. The results are discussed in terms of an attentional model of learning and performance and highlight the importance of tradeoff effects between the goals of complexity and accuracy in the context of the use of limited capacity attentional resources. The study contributes to the development of cognitive models of second language performance and addresses a number of pedagogic issues.
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Claims the paper makes
59 Own result · 48 Own interpretation · 14 Own method · 13 Sources not found · 13 No full text of the sources · 6 No basis given · 5 Not checked yet · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Regarding the fluency measures of pauses and silence, the no planning group always produced the least fluency.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We can conclude, therefore (and this is interesting in itself), that general task familiarity does not have an influence on the level of complexity achieved.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The study reports strong effects of planning on fluency”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the Personal and Decision tasks variation in planning produced little difference.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“interactions were found between task type and planning conditions, such that the effects of planning were greater with the Narrative and Decision-Making tasks than with the Personal Information Exchange task.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Detailed planning only led to greater fluency than undetailed planning for the Narrative task.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hypothesis 3 therefore receives some support, but only at a fairly weak level.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hypothesis 2 is accordingly confirmed.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For each task it is noteworthy that the undetailed planners produced the most accurate level of performance.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“with a linear relationship between degree of planning and degree of complexity.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 61
- It may state two separate claims as one. 52
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“a focus on form (rather than a focus on forms, i.e., form in general rather than any form in particular) is very important if language development is to occur (Doughty, 1991)”
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Doughty, 1991 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Saliency and Conclusion sections report that focus on form helped learners acquire English relativization. But the Comprehension and Rule Internalization section says both the meaning-oriented and rule-oriented treatments facilitated acquisition, so the paper does not establish that focus on form, rather than focus on forms, is necessary for language development. Page numbers are not available in the supplied passages. (LLM, conf=0.87)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The figures in Table 6 indicate that pauses and total silence achieved significance for all three tasks, with very high levels achieved for the Narrative and Decision tasks.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, the detailed planners produced a level of accuracy that was greater than the no planning condition for the Personal and Decision tasks, but the no planning condition produced more accurate performance than detailed planning in the Narrative task.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“No significant differences were found for greater variety of present-tense usage (i.e., forms other than the simple present), modals, or conditionals.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The central finding here is that there are significant differences in the proportion of error-free clauses that were used under the different planning conditions, but these differences show a complex pattern.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a more complex relationship was discovered between planning and accuracy, with the most accurate performance produced by the less detailed planners.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The findings for complexity, in contrast, essentially supported Hypothesis 5 across the tasks, with the detailed planners always producing significantly greater complexity than the undetailed planners, who in turn outperformed the no planning group (with only the comparison for the no planners vs. the undetailed planners failing to reach significance).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“for the Personal and Decision tasks there was only an overall effect for planning versus no planning, the results showing little difference between the two planning conditions”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The F ratio of 5.73 for the Decision task is significant at the .01level, with Duncan range tests demonstrating that the no planning condition was significantly different from the two planning conditions but that the two types of planning did not produce significantly different effects.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The syntactic variety results, which provided only limited support for the more specific Hypothesis 3, patterned similarly to the fluency measures, with little difference between the two planning conditions.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results in Table 8 suggest a very strong effect for the planning condition: Detailed planning produced significantly more subordination than undetailed planning, which in turn produced significantly more subordination than no planning.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The accuracy level, it will be recalled, is comparable to that obtained with the Personal task (and above that obtained for the Narrative task).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This effect is of a monotonic nature for the Narrative task, but there is only a binary distinction for the other two tasks (i.e., the detailed and undetailed conditions do not lead to different patterns of pausing and total silence).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Planning produces more of these, rendering the discourse, in one sense, less fluent.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The measures of syntactic variety were not strong, in any sense, and provide no clear support for Hypothesis 6.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is relevant, in this respect, that the changes in accuracy were least for this task, with even a reduction of accuracy level for the detailed versus the undetailed planners.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Consistent with Crookes (1989), complexity became the preeminent goal, but accuracy suffered to some degree, reducing to a point midway between the undetailed and nonplanning conditions for the Personal task, below the no planning conditions for the Narrative task, and only slightly inferior to the undetailed planning for the Decision task.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Here, the Personal and Decision tasks lead (average error proportions of 0.70 and 0.69, respectively), whereas the Narrative task produces the lowest overall accuracy level (0.61).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The least complex language is used with the Personal task (1.18 clauses per c-unit), the Decision task produces more complex language (1.32), and the Narrative task produces the most complex language of all (1.44).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we have to conclude that Hypothesis 5 is only supported to a limited degree and that the results obtained reveal a more complex picture than was predicted.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complexity, in contrast, although never as great as the Narrative task, is higher than the Personal task and shows a more marked effect for planning.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“So it is already striking that there is an accuracy effect in the present study, even though statistically it is not as strong as that for complexity or fluency.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This pattern of results has been replicated in a subsequent study (Foster & Skehan, 1996).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Foster & Skehan, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fluency measures for the Personal task reduced by less than do those for the Decision task and, most of all, the Narrative”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Personal task generates a greater degree of accuracy without achieving much complexity.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With accuracy, the Personal task and the Decision task produce clear (and fairly similar) gains, whereas the degree of improvement for the Narrative task is less marked.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If only base forms are used, such as simple present or simple past tenses, there would seem to be little impetus for interlanguage change to occur through the use of more challenging forms.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This characterization suggests that the Personal task should be easiest and most accessible to learners”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The data set, based on 31 subjects, is otherwise complete.”
plainn = 31- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This task was considered to place the heaviest cognitive load upon the subject and to allow the least attentional resources to be given to language form.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On balance, then, the Narrative task is judged to be easier than the Decision task.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“posttask activities with a strong focus on form can have a beneficial effect on (earlier) task performance itself, provided that learners themselves make the connection between task completion and subsequent posttask activity.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites J.Willis & Willis, 1988
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The c-unit, defined by Brock (1986) as an independent utterance providing referential or pragmatic meaning, allows for ellipsis and is thus a more sensitive measure for the spoken language.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brock (1986) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Clauses would also generalize across a range of different specific forms and not be dependent on any one of them.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The choice of these types was based on an analysis of tasks commonly used in current English language teaching textbooks.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the Narrative and Decision tasks are similar to one another in that they provide relatively low familiarity but a high computational load.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Accuracy, in contrast, concerns control at a particular interlanguage level.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These comparisons do not attain significance in specific pairwise comparisons, but the trend in the results is clear.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complexity emphasizes the organization of what is said and draws attention to the progressively more elaborate language that may be used, as well as a greater variety of syntactic patterning.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a measure of accuracy may not reflect complexity of language and may be the result of relatively simple, well-controlled forms being used to achieve a more target-like use of language.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Crookes (1989) relied principally on specific measures (target-like use of the article system and of plural -s), and this may have been a factor in the lack of significance reported.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fluency also reflects the effectiveness of the planning process and the way propositions can be orchestrated into effective, ongoing discourse.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“accuracy, as a reflection of a focus on form, may have a more conservative orientation, whereas complexity may capture a greater willingness to experiment and to take risks.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complexity is likely to reflect a willingness, on the learner's part, to engage in restructuring as more complex subsys-terns of language are developed.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“the main competition for attentional resources is between meaning and form, with first priority generally being given to meaning (VanPatten, 1990).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites VanPatten, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The experimental groups were each divided into two, and in each case half the subjects were randomly assigned the undetailed planning condition and half the detailed planning condition (see Table 2).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“such a measure should produce good intersubject variation.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Skehan (1992Skehan ( , 1996)), following Schmidt (1990), takes fluency to reflect the primacy of meaning and the capacity to cope with real-time communication.”
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In any case, given the counterbalanced nature of the research design, any trend toward a practice effect on errors does not influence the conclusions to be drawn later.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- The authors state this as an assumption: If there was a practice effect of consistent strength over the three visits of the study, the Personal Information Exchange task, always completed in the second week, would be affected to the same degree as the averaged performance on the other two tasks.
In the paper
“the standard deviations for the measures reported tended to be higher for the planning groups for the complexity measures, suggesting that some subjects interpreted the planning instructions in different ways”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is also likely to be associated with greater risktaking to the extent that actual performances may be exploited to use forms closer to the cutting edge of interlanguage development.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the process of trying to reach an agreement on a series of difficult questions was considered most likely to require the use of complex language.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the calculation of error-free clauses has merit”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“one can also try to measure the range of syntactic forms used, as these reflect a capacity to draw upon a greater variety of language.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“transacting tasks will push forward interlanguage development because the demands that tasks make will engage the very processes that lead to acquisition.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“such measures are likely to be more sensitive to differences in experimental conditions, detecting weaker effects because these are likely to be based on more variance.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this way, subjects were protected from any special pressure that selection for recording might have had upon their performance.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complexity, in other words, connects with change and the opportunities for development and growth in the interlanguage system.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To combat any practice effect, each of the controls and each of the experimental groups did the tasks in a different order (see Table 3).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the nature of the task would require relatively simple linguistic forms to be used.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It may therefore prioritize lexicalized language (Ellis, 1987) and the way learners, during tasks, avoid rule-based, constructed language, instead preferring to use more idiom-based language (Sinclair, 1991) to enable communication to proceed more smoothly.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ellis, 1987 source
- Not matchedcites Sinclair, 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“decisions to attend to one area are usually made at the expense of attending to another.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Ellis (1987) found that accuracy on the regular (rule-governed) form of the past tense declined according to lack of planned discourse being engaged, whereas performance on the irregular (lexical) past form was hardly affected by these conditions.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ellis (1987) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it was seen as requiring the least cognitive effort and allowing the greatest attention to language form.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“attention and noticing are central for second language development”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Schmidt, 1990 source
- Not matchedcites Schmidt, 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“such a focus makes noticing more likely and also enables language teaching goals of accuracy and complexity (Skehan, 1992) to be pursued more effectively.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Skehan, 1992
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Crookes (1989) reported a study in which providing subjects with pretask planning time leads to greater complexity and variety of language but no significant increases in accuracy.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It was seen as giving scope for more complex language but also demanding greater cognitive effort, therefore allowing less attention to be devoted to form.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“What seems to be happening is that the goals of complexity and accuracy compete for limited information processing resources and that what is achievable depends on the precise allocational decisions made.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When the lower level of his performance was noticed, his results were removed from the data set.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The framework also suggests that midtask manipulations may also influence the balance among the goals of fluency, complexity, and accuracy.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But these conclusions are based on just three tasks.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Subsequently, one subject had to be discarded when it was realized that the college had not applied its own selection policy to him.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“They were, quite simply, devices for the transmission of neutral and arbitrary information.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes' (1989) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But we interpret this finding to suggest naturalness of discourse, in that native speakers also engage in a greater use of such linguistic behaviors to enable them to cope with the problem of real-time.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this way, the risk of basing the research project on unpopular and unproductive tasks was reduced.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Crookes (1989) seemed to be testing for specific increases in accuracy, whereas we were more interested in detecting a more generalized accuracy effect.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A generally similar pattern of results is reported in Alvarez-Ossario (1994).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Alvarez-Ossario (1994)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even so, it must be borne in mind that the effect, in such a case, was on accuracy, not on complexity.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Crookes (1989) looked for specific effects on a wide range of variables, whereas the present study used a more global measure based on all contributory influences on error and correctness.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Crookes' (1989) tasks, for example, a LEGO assembly, were classroom tasks and did not have much connection with the subjects' real lives.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes' (1989) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In any case here, even if there were an effect that has not been detected in the present study, the underlying cause may be task familiarity, or simply improvements in proficiency over time.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In other words, it may be that the subjects under the unplanned condition, who would benefit most from the use of techniques to protect time for ongoing planning, are unable to exploit them.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The students were following courses of instruction, and it may be that this instruction was having an effect.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It may simply be, therefore, that the use of a dependent variable such as error-free clauses is more sensitive to an overall accuracy effect, a proposal perhaps consistent with the weaker finding in this area than for complexity.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But the next condition, detailed planning, seemed to lead to a level of pressure too great for subjects to cope with all aspects of performance, with the result that prioritizing decisions had to be made.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The most comparable study (Crookes, 1989) reported a complexity effect, but no significant differences for accuracy.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes, 1989 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“First, these results contrast with those of Crookes (1989) in that here planning is associated with a greater degree of accuracy, at least some of the time.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It also suggests that midtask and posttask activities are important.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In passing, it should be noted that the Narrative task is less effective at meeting this criterion of real-world connection, as there is obviously an arbitrary, detached quality to producing an imaginary story based on a set of (relatively) unrelated photographs.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Although Ellis (1987) reported such an effect, it was for a study that focused on only one language form (the past tense, so that no complexity dimension was involved) and for which the experimental conditions (talking, alone, into a tape recorder) might be thought to favor accuracy.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ellis (1987) source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First of all, the contrast in findings may be due to the nature of the measures used.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Before the study proper began, a number ol candidate tasks were piloted at a neighboring college in order to determine for each of the three types which task was the most productive of language and the most enjoyable to do.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The authors state this as an assumption.
If there was a practice effect of consistent strength over the three visits of the study, the Personal Information Exchange task, always completed in the second week, would be affected to the same degree as the averaged performance on the other two tasks.
“It was assumed that if there was a practice effect of consistent strength over the three visits of the study, the Personal Information Exchange task, always completed in the second week, would be affected to the same degree as the averaged performance on the other two tasks.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Attention is limited in capacity and its use to achieve one goal can reduce the capacity remaining for the achievement of other goals.
“The general perspective in this article is that attention is limited in capacity and that its use to achieve one goal can reduce the capacity remaining for the achievement of other goals.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The tasks were closely based on types commonly used in classrooms.
“This was unproblematic, as each of the tasks was closely based on types commonly used in classrooms.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The three tasks used are valid representatives of the Personal, Narrative, and Decision task types.
“These three tasks were chosen because they vary the importance of background knowledge and general familiarity, on the one hand, and inherent structure, on the other.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The measures of complexity, accuracy, and fluency used validly capture those constructs.
“the present study used a more global measure based on all contributory influences on error and correctness”
The paper relies on this without support.
The planning conditions (no planning, undetailed, detailed) successfully manipulated planning time and cognitive load as intended.
“detailed planning causes subjects to structure their subsequent task contributions in a more ambitious manner”
The paper relies on this without support.
The subjects' reactions (Narrative task most difficult) reflect actual cognitive difficulty.
“a proposal consistent with the reactions of the subjects, who thought the Narrative task most difficult but produced the most complex language while doing it”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The ways in which information is distributed among learners, and the ways in which they must exchange information can impact learner interaction (Doughty & Pica 1986;Foster & Skehan 1996;Ellis 2003;Pica et al. 2006;Gilabert, Barón & Llanes 2009).”
From Interaction and instructed second language acquisition (2018) · cites this paper as Foster & Skehan 1996
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Second, our choice to use 'accuracy as a reflection to focus on form' (Foster & Skehan, 1996, p. 280) might have been too conservative to get a full insight into the effects of task repetition.”
From Focus on form through task repetition in TBLT (2016) · cites this paper as Foster & Skehan, 1996
Citations
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“Skehan (1992, 1996), following Schmidt (1990), takes fluency to reflect the primacy of meaning and the capacity to cope with real-time communication.”
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 501–600 of 1,141
Effect of modality and task type on interlanguage variation
Kim, H. Y. (2017) · ReCALL · doi:10.1017/s0958344017000015 · Cited by 7
“In terms of accuracy, the results are in line with previous findings (Foster & Skehan, 1996; Skehan & Foster, 1997), which reported that decision-making tasks lead to higher accuracy levels than narrative tasks.”
ResultThe role of group dynamics in low‐achieving EFL students’ speaking development
Maad, M. R. B., & Saadi, I. A. (2020) · International Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1111/ijal.12279 · Cited by 9
EFFECTS OF TASK BASED SPEAKING ACTIVITIES ON EFL LEARNERS’ ORAL PERFORMANCE
Xuyen, V. T. M., & Trang, N. H. (2021) · European Journal of English Language Teaching · doi:10.46827/ejel.v6i6.3906 · Cited by 16
“For Skehan and Foster (1996), tasks are meaning focused communicative activities which resemble to students’ real life language use and are assessed based on the level of task fulfillment.”
BackgroundThe effect of watching captioned TV series on speaking accuracy of Iranian advanced EFL learners
Tajgozari, M. (2019) · Global Journal of Foreign Language Teaching · doi:10.18844/gjflt.v9i3.4221 · Cited by 7
Task, task performance, and writing development
Byrnes, H., & Manchón, R. M. (2014) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.7.11byr · Cited by 8
Caruso, G. (2014) · doi:10.15760/etd.2003 · Cited by 11
“Rethinking interaction in SLA: Developmentally appropriate assistance in the zone of proximal development and the acquisition of L2 grammar.”
BackgroundInfluentialPreface The Origins and Growth of Task-Based Language Teaching
Long, M. H., & Ahmadian, M. J. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.001 · Cited by 9
Liao, R. J. T., Ohta, R., & Lee, K. (2023) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/02655322231167629 · Cited by 7
“…of L2 development, second language acquisition research has focused on three major components of the multidimensional construct of L2 proficiency, namely complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF; e.g., Housen et al., 2012; Larsen-Freeman, 1978, 2009; Norris & Ortega, 2009; Skehan, 1996, 1998, 2009).”
Hunter, A.-M. (2023) · TESOL Quarterly (Print) · doi:10.1002/tesq.3257 · Cited by 8
Enhancing young EFL learners’ written skills: the role of repeated pre-task planning
Gómez, J. G., Orcasitas-Vicandi, M., & Kopinska, M. (2024) · IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral-2023-0144 · Cited by 8
Thorpe, W. C., Baker‐Smemoe, W., Hartshorn, K. J., McMurry, B. L., & Wilcox, M. P. (2025) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2025.103721 · Cited by 12
Balconi, M., Allegretta, R. A., & Angioletti, L. (2024) · Cognitive Neurodynamics · doi:10.1007/s11571-024-10189-8 · Cited by 6
“…is necessary to make a conceptual distinction “within” such function, since the implementation of strategic planning can be considered a component of EF, while the awareness, evaluation, and control of the adopted strategic plan can be considered as a metacognitive process (Foster and Skehan 1996).”
The Effects of Planning and Proficiency on Language Production of Writing Task Performance
Nariman-Jahan, R., & Rahimpour, M. (2011) · Cited by 6
Task-readiness and L2 task performance across proficiency levels
Bui, G. (2019) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.13.12bui · Cited by 6
Exploring Multi-Word Combinations as Measures of Linguistic Accuracy in Second Language Writing
Polio, C. G., & Yoon, H. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108674577.006 · Cited by 5
Connecting Teacher Training to Task-Based Language Teaching Implementation
Bryfonski, L. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.027 · Cited by 7
Child Interaction in Task-Supported EFL/CLIL Contexts
Mayo, M. D. P. G. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.023 · Cited by 6
Belz, M., & Odebrecht, C. (2022) · Zeitschrift für Germanistische Linguistik · doi:10.1515/zgl-2022-2051 · Cited by 6
The effects of task repetition and corrective feedback on L2 writing development
Kim, J., & Li, S. (2024) · Language Learning Journal · doi:10.1080/09571736.2024.2390555 · Cited by 12
“…studies have investigated the impact of task design (such as task complexity) and task implementation factors (such as task planning and task repetition) on second language (L2) performance and learning outcomes (Bygate 2001; Foster and Skehan 1996; Philp, Oliver, and Mackey 2006; Robinson 2011).”
Guichon, N., & Cohen, C. (2012) · Recherche et pratiques pédagogiques en langues de spécialité · doi:10.4000/apliut.3093 · Cited by 6
“This measure of fluency employed in a number of other studies (e.g. Foster & Skehan 1996; Wendel 1997; Yuan & Ellis 2003) was selected as it takes both the quantity of speech and the length of pauses into consideration.”
MethodThe EAP competencies in a group case study project as revealed by a task analysis
Smith, A. F. V., & Thondhlana, J. (2015) · Journal of English for Academic Purposes · doi:10.1016/j.jeap.2015.03.001 · Cited by 6
Shallow Analysis Based Assessment of Syntactic Complexity for Automated Speech Scoring
Bhat, S., Xue, H., & Yoon, S. (2014) · Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) · doi:10.3115/v1/p14-1123 · Cited by 6
“In addition, studies such as Foster and Skehan (1996) have successfully explored the utility of frequency of grammatical errors as objective measures of grammatical development.”
BackgroundResultTHE EFFECT OF TRAINING AND TASK-PLANNING ON THE COMPLEXITY OF IRANIAN LEARNERS’ ORAL SPEECH
Birjandi, P., & Seifoori, Z. (2009) · Cited by 6
Noun Phrase Construction in Academic Research Articles
Lau, T. M. (2017) · International Journal online of Humanities · doi:10.24113/ijohmn.v3i6.44 · Cited by 6
“The sentence patterns in L2 writing depends heavily on the the syntactic complexity, which refers to how sophisticated the production units or grammatical structures are (Foster & Skehan, 1996).”
Backgroundvan Batenburg, E., Oostdam, R., van Gelderen, A. V., Fukkink, R., & de Jong, N. D. (2018) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168818804258 · Cited by 6
“The pre-interaction category surveys the type of pre-interaction activities that learners perform in order to free up attentional space (Foster & Skehan, 1996): language preparation, content preparation or interactional strategies preparation.”
BackgroundZaccaron, R., Xhafaj, D. C. P., & D’Ely, R. C. S. F. (2019) · Ilha do Desterro A Journal of English Language Literatures in English and Cultural Studies · doi:10.5007/2175-8026.2019v72n3p401 · Cited by 7
A Study of Task Type for L2 Speaking Assessment
Teng, T., & Huei-Chun (2007) · Cited by 6
The Psycholinguistics of Task-Based Performance
Skehan, P. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.002 · Cited by 9
Self-citation“We Are Responsive on Zoom, but…”
Qiu, X., & Bui, G. (2022) · International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching · doi:10.4018/ijcallt.291535 · Cited by 6
Task-Based Teaching and Learning: Pedagogical Implications
East, M. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-02246-8_8 · Cited by 7
A Study of Task Types For L2 Speaking Assessment
Teng, H.-C. (2021) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-64802-755-020251030 · Cited by 6
A Study on Correlation of Risk-Taking and the Oral Production of English Majors in China
Wang, Y., & Lin, Y. (2015) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v8n10p113 · Cited by 6
“As Foster and Skehan (1996) mentioned, complexity is more associated with learners’ willingness to take risks to use the language that might result in errors and to restructure their interlanguage. According to Forster and Skehan (1996), it is more associated with the extent to which learners use the language forms cl…”
BackgroundPreparing University EFL Students for Job Interviews in English: A Task-Based Approach
Otlowski, M. (2008) · Cited by 6
Comparative evaluation of automated scoring of syntactic competence of non-native speakers
Zechner, K., Yoon, S., Bhat, S., & Leong, C. W. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.060 · Cited by 6
Corrective Feedback, Spoken Accuracy and Fluency, and the Trade-off Hypothesis
Azad, M. H. C., Farrokhi, F., & Zohrabi, M. (2018) · International Journal of Instruction · doi:10.12973/iji.2018.11232a · Cited by 9
“Following previous studies (Foster & Skehan, 1996; Skehan & Foster 1997, 1999, 2005; Vercellotti, 2012; Wendel, 1997; Yuan & Ellis, 2003), the accuracy measurement of the learners' spoken production was based on the proportion of the error free clauses.”
BackgroundMethodSalimi, A., Alavinia, P., Hosseini, P., & Shafaei, A. (2012) · International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature · doi:10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.7p.104 · Cited by 6
“…different types of planning time and their effects on L2 learners’ performance in terms of accuracy, fluency, and complexity (Crookes, 1989; Foster and Skehan, 1996; Mehnert, 1998; Yuan and Ellis, 2003; Ellis and Yuan, 2004; Sangarun, 2005; Tavakoli and Skehan, 2005; Wang, 2008; Mehrang…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAnalysing Spoken Language for Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency: Some Methodological Considerations
Czwenar, I. (2013) · Second language learning and teaching · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-00419-8_6 · Cited by 6
The Effects of peer editing versus co-writing on writing in Chinese-as-a-foreign language
Tian, J. (2011) · UVic’s Research and Learning Repository (University of Victoria) · Cited by 6
Stimulating Negotiation of Meaning in CMC Interaction
Shim, Y.-S. (2008) · Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.15702/mall.2008.11.2.142 · Cited by 6
Informal English Learning in France
Kusyk, M. (2019) · doi:10.1002/9781119472384.ch22 · Cited by 6
Supplementary materials for Pronunciation Fundamentals
(2015) · Language learning and language teaching · doi:10.1075/lllt.42.additional · Cited by 6
Ganeva, I. B. (1999) · Library and Archives Canada (Government of Canada) · Cited by 6
Dimensionality of Written Accuracy: Exploring the Factor Structure of Linguistic Accuracy Measures
Liu, J., & Shi, Z. (2025) · Language Assessment Quarterly · doi:10.1080/15434303.2025.2507012 · Cited by 5
“This quantitative finding aligns with discussions by Foster and Skehan (1996), Lennon (1991), and Xie (2019).”
InfluentialSecond Language Cognitive Task Complexity
Sasayama, S., Malicka, A., & Norris, J. M. (2025) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.18 · Cited by 7
The Impact of AWE and Peer Feedback on Chinese EFL Learners’ English Writing Performance
Xie, Y., Huang, L., & Wang, Y. (2020) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-981-33-4594-2_22 · Cited by 5
Alimorad, Z., & Yazdani, S. (2020) · Journal of Language and Education · doi:10.17323/jle.2020.9772 · Cited by 5
Qing, W., & Chen, L. (2022) · Arab World English Journal · doi:10.24093/awej/vol13no3.25 · Cited by 5
“( Foster & Skehan, 1996; Ortega, 2003; Wolfe-Quintero, 1998).”
Second language learning of depiction in a different modality: The case of sign language acquisition
Kurz, K. B., Kartheiser, G., & Hauser, P. C. (2023) · Frontiers in Communication · doi:10.3389/fcomm.2022.896355 · Cited by 8
“Research related to narrative tasks is well-established (see Robinson, 1995; Foster and Skehan, 1996; Skehan and Foster, 1997, 1999; Bygate, 1999).”
BackgroundModel text as corrective feedback in L2 writing: the role of working memory and vocabulary size
Mujtaba, S. M., Zhang, T., Mao, S. S., & Ahmed, N. (2024) · IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral-2023-0242 · Cited by 5
Saeedi, M. (2015) · Journal of applied linguistics and language research · Cited by 5
VERGINE, G., & D’Ely, R. C. S. F. (2009) · Signótica · doi:10.5216/sig.v20i2.6084 · Cited by 5
THE RELEVANCE OF ATTENTION TO L2 FORM IN COMMUNICATIVE CLASSROOM CONTEXTS
Mayo, M. D. P. G. (2011) · Elia · Cited by 5
Development of a test of speaking proficiency in multiple languages
Plough, I. C. (2014) · Studies in Language Assessment · doi:10.58379/rtjy4508 · Cited by 5
“Based on the growing body of task-based research (Brown & Hill, 2008; Bygate, Skehan, & Swain, 2001; Foster & Skehan, 1996; Foster & Tavakoli, 2009; Fulcher, 2003; Keck, Iberri-Shea, Tracy-Ventura, & Wa-Mbaleka, 2006; Skehan, 2009), the RCAH speaking test incorporates task characteristics that…”
Mirazi, S., & Mahmoudi, A. (2016) · Theory and Practice in Language Studies · doi:10.17507/tpls.0608.16 · Cited by 5
“Similar to Crookes' study, Foster and Skehan (1996) explored the impact of planning on variables as different as personal performance, narrative task, and decision-making task.”
ResultKord, M. A. (2018) · International Journal of Language and Linguistics · doi:10.11648/j.ijll.20180601.11 · Cited by 6
“The results of this study are in line with the results of studies like [12], [25], [29], [36].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSadeghi, K., & Ghaderi, F. (2018) · Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies · doi:10.2989/16073614.2018.1548298 · Cited by 5
Phonological short-term memory capacity and L2 oral performance
Grañena, G., & Yılmaz, Y. (2019) · Journal of Second Language Studies · doi:10.1075/jsls.19005.gra · Cited by 5
Manzoor, H., Azhar, S., & Malik, F. (2020) · International Journal of English Linguistics · doi:10.5539/ijel.v10n2p128 · Cited by 7
Methodology of Task-Based Language Teaching
Ellis, R., Skehan, P., Li, S., Shintani, N., & Lambert, C. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108643689.013 · Cited by 6
Self-citationMethodological Approaches to Investigating Task-Based Language Teaching
Révész, A. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.034 · Cited by 5
The Aspect Hypothesis and L2 Russian
Martelle, W. W., & Shirai, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Language Sciences · doi:10.3389/flang.2023.1119026 · Cited by 7
Drood, P., & Asl, H. D. (2016) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v9n9p110 · Cited by 5
“In order to score the data the measures used by Foster and Skehan (1997) were adapted for scoring the ‘accuracy of the participants’ performance.”
MethodChen, X., & Meurers, D. (2017) · Apollo (University of Cambridge) · doi:10.17863/cam.39629 · Cited by 5
The Story of the Learner Corpus LINDSEI_CZ
Gráf, T. (2017) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 5
Group Work in a Technology-Rich Environment
Penner, N., & Schulze, M. (2010) · The Journal of Interactive Learning Research · Cited by 5
College Students’ Perceptions on the Issues of Task-based Language Teaching in Mainland
Meng, Y.-R., & Cheng, B. (2010) · Journal of Language Teaching and Research · doi:10.4304/jltr.1.4.434-442 · Cited by 3
Task type and linguistic performance in school-based assessment situation
Gan, Z. (2013) · Linguistics and Education · doi:10.1016/j.linged.2013.08.004 · Cited by 6
Goldsmith, J. (2010) · Bellaterra Journal of Teaching & Learning Language & Literature · doi:10.5565/rev/jtl3.34 · Cited by 5
“…students only speak for between 60 and 80 seconds on each picture, the shifting of visual prompts and repetition of the activities allows for more extensive communicative practice, extending the activity while potentially keeping students more intrinsically interested (cf. Foster & Skehan, 1996).”
BackgroundSimard, D., Bergeron, A., Liu, Y. G., Nader, M., & Redmond, L. (2016) · Canadian Modern Language Review/ La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes · doi:10.3138/cmlr.2767 · Cited by 5
Oral Pushed Output: the Route to Long-term Grammatical Accuracy
Mamaghani, H. J., & Birjandi, P. (2017) · Journal of teaching language skills · doi:10.22099/jtls.2017.4044 · Cited by 6
Purpura, J. E. (2012) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0045 · Cited by 11
The Effects of Drama on Oral Fluency and Foreign Language Anxiety: An exploratory study
Galante, A. (2013) · Brock University Digital Repository (Brock University) · Cited by 5
Ellis, R., Skehan, P., Li, S., Shintani, N., & Lambert, C. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108643689.009 · Cited by 5
Self-citationLevkina, M. (2008) · Dipòsit Digital de la Universitat de Barcelona (Universitat de Barcelona) · Cited by 5
Infusion of critical thinking into L2 classes :a case study in a Chinese high school
Lin, Y. (2014) · Cited by 5
The effects of planning on second language oral performance in Japanese
Nakakubo, T. (2011) · doi:10.17077/etd.vvewb5mw · Cited by 7
“Turning to complexity, the strategic planning group in Yuan and Ellis (2003) produced syntactically more complex speech than the no planning group with a statistically significant difference, which again replicated the results of previous studies (Crookes 1989; Foster and Skehan, 1996; Mehnert, 1998; Ortega, 1999; Wen…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialFujita, T., & Shintani, N. (2025) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688251324376 · Cited by 10
Beyond accuracy: The development of syntactic complexity in middle school Spanish immersion
Menke, M. R. (2024) · Foreign Language Annals · doi:10.1111/flan.12746 · Cited by 4
Farahanynia, M., & Khatib, M. (2021) · Language Learning Journal · doi:10.1080/09571736.2021.1901966 · Cited by 4
“Indeed, a majority of studies on strategic planning have come to this conclusion (Bamanger and Gashan 2015; Dawadi 2019; Foster and Skehan 1996; Levkina and Gilabert 2012; Li et al. 2015; Li and Fu 2016; Wang 2014).”
BackgroundSerafini, E. J. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.005 · Cited by 5
Lee, D., & Kim, S. (2022) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2022.102861 · Cited by 4
Simard, D., Zuniga, M., & Hameau, F. (2023) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688221146379 · Cited by 5
“Such planning has been shown to lighten the task’s cognitive load (e.g. Foster & Skehan, 1996) and increase complexity (e.g. Crookes, 1989; Ellis, 1987; Foster & Skehan, 1996; Ortega, 1999; Yuan & Ellis, 2003).”
Chang, H., & Windeatt, S. (2024) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688241233718 · Cited by 5
“Studies generally identify a positive link between planning time and perceptions of fluency (Skehan & Foster, 1997), though this varies according to task-type (Foster & Skehan, 1996), and to the length of time allowed for planning (Li et al., 2015).”
WORKING MEMORY CAPACITY AND LEXICAL DENSITY IN L2 SPEECH PRODUCTION
Weissheimer, J., & Mota, M. B. (2011) · Organon · doi:10.22456/2238-8915.28843 · Cited by 4
The Effect of Generic Features of Task on L2 Learners’ Oral Performance
Kuhi, D., Salimi, A., & Shafaei, A. (2012) · Theory and Practice in Language Studies · doi:10.4304/tpls.2.4.820-825 · Cited by 4
Yu, W.-T., & van Heuven, V. V. (2013) · Linguistics in the Netherlands · doi:10.1075/avt.30.15yu · Cited by 6
Pasupathi, M. (2013) · PROFILE Issues in Teachers Professional Development · Cited by 4
tabatabaie, O., & yakhabi, M. (2009) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 4
Effects of a Task-Based Approach to Non-English-Majored Graduates’ Oral English Performance
Lou, Y., Chen, P., & Chen, L. (2016) · Creative Education · doi:10.4236/ce.2016.74069 · Cited by 6
“It belongs to a problem-solving task suggested by Willis’s (1996a) task type and similar to the personal task used in the research by Foster and Skehan (1996).”
BackgroundMethodMoghadam, M. B., & Haghverdi, H. R. (2016) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 3
A Quantitative Study of Right Dislocation in Cantonese Spoken Discourse
Lai, C., Law, S., & Kong, A. P. (2017) · Language and Speech · doi:10.1177/0023830916688028 · Cited by 4
“According to Foster and Skehan (1996), the cognitive demand in the genre of procedural description should be the minimum since it contains an inherent sequential task structure. Recounting a personal experience would be expected to be the most cognitively demanding since its structure is more dynamic and stylized. The…”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Impressibility of Speaking Accuracy/Fluency among EFL Undergraduates: A Meta-Analysis
Toni, A., Hassaskhah, J., & Birjandi, P. (2017) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 4
Corrective Feedback and Iranian EFL Learners' Spoken Complexity and Accuracy
Farrokhi, F., Zohrabi, M., & Azad, M. H. C. (2018) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · doi:10.22132/tel.2018.76934 · Cited by 4
“For example, Foster and Skehan (1996) have argued that trade-off is between accuracy and complexity.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSardarianpour, S., & Kolahi, S. (2021) · Advances in Language and Literary Studies · doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.12n.2.p.1 · Cited by 4
“Consequently, it may focus on lexicalized language which also reflects the effectiveness of the planning process and the way plans can be made into effective, ongoing discourse (Foster & Skehan, 1996).”
BackgroundMethodNon-canonical word order as a measure of syntactic complexity in advanced L2 German
Lecouvet, M. (2021) · IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral-2021-0029 · Cited by 4
Evaluating Task-Based Language Programs
Norris, J. M., & Davis, J. M. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.030 · Cited by 5
Weissheimer, J. (2011) · Ilha do Desterro A Journal of English Language Literatures in English and Cultural Studies · doi:10.5007/2175-8026.2011n60p075 · Cited by 4
“…not considering the memory group involved, this result seems to corroborate the great majority of research on speech production, in which complexity is generally reported as one of the aspects most open to improvements when learners perform orally (Foster & Skehan, 1996; Bygate, 2001; D’Ely, 2006).”
BackgroundResultVandommele, G., Gorp, K. V., den Branden, K. V., & Mæyer, S. D. (2022) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/amac024 · Cited by 4
Disfluency and self‐repair in presentational and interpersonal speech modalities
Liao, J. (2022) · Foreign Language Annals · doi:10.1111/flan.12658 · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Foster, P., & Skehan, P.
- Affiliations
- University of West London (GB)
- Venue
- Studies in Second Language Acquisition
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 1996-09
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 299-323
- ISSN
- 0272-2631 (ISSN-L)
- 1470-1545
- OpenAlex
- W2001528051
- Cited by
- 1,147
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 24 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 69 · 2021: 77 · 2020: 99 · 2019: 80 · 2018: 52 · 2017: 57 · 2016: 62 · 2015: 80 · 2014: 60 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 50
- FWCI
- 28.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Studies in Second Language Acquisition (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Linguistics and Language Analysis
- Keywords
- task-based language teaching, task planning, second language performance, fluency, complexity, accuracy, task type, narrative task, decision-making tasks
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