The DOI matches its Crossref record; 30 of the 30 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 37 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The Influence of Planning and Task Type on Second Language Performance
Open accessAbstract
This study focuses on the impact of different variables on the nature of language performance in the context of task-based instruction. Characteristics of tasks are discussed, and then a framework is offered that can organize the nature of task-based instruction and relevant research. The framework is used to generate predictions regarding the effects of three different tasks (Personal Information Exchange, Narrative, and Decision-Making) and three different implementation conditions for each task (unplanned, planned but without detail, detailed planning) on the variables of fluency, complexity, and accuracy. The study reports strong effects of planning on fluency and clear effects also on complexity, with a linear relationship between degree of planning and degree of complexity. However, a more complex relationship was discovered between planning and accuracy, with the most accurate performance produced by the less detailed planners. In addition, interactions were found between task type and planning conditions, such that the effects of planning were greater with the Narrative and Decision-Making tasks than with the Personal Information Exchange task. The results are discussed in terms of an attentional model of learning and performance and highlight the importance of tradeoff effects between the goals of complexity and accuracy in the context of the use of limited capacity attentional resources. The study contributes to the development of cognitive models of second language performance and addresses a number of pedagogic issues.
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Claims the paper makes
59 Own result · 48 Own interpretation · 14 Own method · 13 Sources not found · 13 No full text of the sources · 6 No basis given · 5 Not checked yet · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Regarding the fluency measures of pauses and silence, the no planning group always produced the least fluency.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We can conclude, therefore (and this is interesting in itself), that general task familiarity does not have an influence on the level of complexity achieved.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The study reports strong effects of planning on fluency”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the Personal and Decision tasks variation in planning produced little difference.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“interactions were found between task type and planning conditions, such that the effects of planning were greater with the Narrative and Decision-Making tasks than with the Personal Information Exchange task.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Detailed planning only led to greater fluency than undetailed planning for the Narrative task.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hypothesis 3 therefore receives some support, but only at a fairly weak level.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hypothesis 2 is accordingly confirmed.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For each task it is noteworthy that the undetailed planners produced the most accurate level of performance.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“with a linear relationship between degree of planning and degree of complexity.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 61
- It may state two separate claims as one. 52
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“a focus on form (rather than a focus on forms, i.e., form in general rather than any form in particular) is very important if language development is to occur (Doughty, 1991)”
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Doughty, 1991 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Saliency and Conclusion sections report that focus on form helped learners acquire English relativization. But the Comprehension and Rule Internalization section says both the meaning-oriented and rule-oriented treatments facilitated acquisition, so the paper does not establish that focus on form, rather than focus on forms, is necessary for language development. Page numbers are not available in the supplied passages. (LLM, conf=0.87)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The figures in Table 6 indicate that pauses and total silence achieved significance for all three tasks, with very high levels achieved for the Narrative and Decision tasks.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, the detailed planners produced a level of accuracy that was greater than the no planning condition for the Personal and Decision tasks, but the no planning condition produced more accurate performance than detailed planning in the Narrative task.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“No significant differences were found for greater variety of present-tense usage (i.e., forms other than the simple present), modals, or conditionals.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The central finding here is that there are significant differences in the proportion of error-free clauses that were used under the different planning conditions, but these differences show a complex pattern.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a more complex relationship was discovered between planning and accuracy, with the most accurate performance produced by the less detailed planners.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The findings for complexity, in contrast, essentially supported Hypothesis 5 across the tasks, with the detailed planners always producing significantly greater complexity than the undetailed planners, who in turn outperformed the no planning group (with only the comparison for the no planners vs. the undetailed planners failing to reach significance).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“for the Personal and Decision tasks there was only an overall effect for planning versus no planning, the results showing little difference between the two planning conditions”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The F ratio of 5.73 for the Decision task is significant at the .01level, with Duncan range tests demonstrating that the no planning condition was significantly different from the two planning conditions but that the two types of planning did not produce significantly different effects.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The syntactic variety results, which provided only limited support for the more specific Hypothesis 3, patterned similarly to the fluency measures, with little difference between the two planning conditions.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results in Table 8 suggest a very strong effect for the planning condition: Detailed planning produced significantly more subordination than undetailed planning, which in turn produced significantly more subordination than no planning.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The accuracy level, it will be recalled, is comparable to that obtained with the Personal task (and above that obtained for the Narrative task).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This effect is of a monotonic nature for the Narrative task, but there is only a binary distinction for the other two tasks (i.e., the detailed and undetailed conditions do not lead to different patterns of pausing and total silence).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Planning produces more of these, rendering the discourse, in one sense, less fluent.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The measures of syntactic variety were not strong, in any sense, and provide no clear support for Hypothesis 6.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is relevant, in this respect, that the changes in accuracy were least for this task, with even a reduction of accuracy level for the detailed versus the undetailed planners.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Consistent with Crookes (1989), complexity became the preeminent goal, but accuracy suffered to some degree, reducing to a point midway between the undetailed and nonplanning conditions for the Personal task, below the no planning conditions for the Narrative task, and only slightly inferior to the undetailed planning for the Decision task.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Here, the Personal and Decision tasks lead (average error proportions of 0.70 and 0.69, respectively), whereas the Narrative task produces the lowest overall accuracy level (0.61).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The least complex language is used with the Personal task (1.18 clauses per c-unit), the Decision task produces more complex language (1.32), and the Narrative task produces the most complex language of all (1.44).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we have to conclude that Hypothesis 5 is only supported to a limited degree and that the results obtained reveal a more complex picture than was predicted.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complexity, in contrast, although never as great as the Narrative task, is higher than the Personal task and shows a more marked effect for planning.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“So it is already striking that there is an accuracy effect in the present study, even though statistically it is not as strong as that for complexity or fluency.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This pattern of results has been replicated in a subsequent study (Foster & Skehan, 1996).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Foster & Skehan, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fluency measures for the Personal task reduced by less than do those for the Decision task and, most of all, the Narrative”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Personal task generates a greater degree of accuracy without achieving much complexity.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With accuracy, the Personal task and the Decision task produce clear (and fairly similar) gains, whereas the degree of improvement for the Narrative task is less marked.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If only base forms are used, such as simple present or simple past tenses, there would seem to be little impetus for interlanguage change to occur through the use of more challenging forms.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This characterization suggests that the Personal task should be easiest and most accessible to learners”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The data set, based on 31 subjects, is otherwise complete.”
plainn = 31- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This task was considered to place the heaviest cognitive load upon the subject and to allow the least attentional resources to be given to language form.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On balance, then, the Narrative task is judged to be easier than the Decision task.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“posttask activities with a strong focus on form can have a beneficial effect on (earlier) task performance itself, provided that learners themselves make the connection between task completion and subsequent posttask activity.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites J.Willis & Willis, 1988
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The c-unit, defined by Brock (1986) as an independent utterance providing referential or pragmatic meaning, allows for ellipsis and is thus a more sensitive measure for the spoken language.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brock (1986) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Clauses would also generalize across a range of different specific forms and not be dependent on any one of them.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The choice of these types was based on an analysis of tasks commonly used in current English language teaching textbooks.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the Narrative and Decision tasks are similar to one another in that they provide relatively low familiarity but a high computational load.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Accuracy, in contrast, concerns control at a particular interlanguage level.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These comparisons do not attain significance in specific pairwise comparisons, but the trend in the results is clear.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complexity emphasizes the organization of what is said and draws attention to the progressively more elaborate language that may be used, as well as a greater variety of syntactic patterning.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a measure of accuracy may not reflect complexity of language and may be the result of relatively simple, well-controlled forms being used to achieve a more target-like use of language.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Crookes (1989) relied principally on specific measures (target-like use of the article system and of plural -s), and this may have been a factor in the lack of significance reported.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fluency also reflects the effectiveness of the planning process and the way propositions can be orchestrated into effective, ongoing discourse.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“accuracy, as a reflection of a focus on form, may have a more conservative orientation, whereas complexity may capture a greater willingness to experiment and to take risks.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complexity is likely to reflect a willingness, on the learner's part, to engage in restructuring as more complex subsys-terns of language are developed.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“the main competition for attentional resources is between meaning and form, with first priority generally being given to meaning (VanPatten, 1990).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites VanPatten, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The experimental groups were each divided into two, and in each case half the subjects were randomly assigned the undetailed planning condition and half the detailed planning condition (see Table 2).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“such a measure should produce good intersubject variation.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Skehan (1992Skehan ( , 1996)), following Schmidt (1990), takes fluency to reflect the primacy of meaning and the capacity to cope with real-time communication.”
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In any case, given the counterbalanced nature of the research design, any trend toward a practice effect on errors does not influence the conclusions to be drawn later.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- The authors state this as an assumption: If there was a practice effect of consistent strength over the three visits of the study, the Personal Information Exchange task, always completed in the second week, would be affected to the same degree as the averaged performance on the other two tasks.
In the paper
“the standard deviations for the measures reported tended to be higher for the planning groups for the complexity measures, suggesting that some subjects interpreted the planning instructions in different ways”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is also likely to be associated with greater risktaking to the extent that actual performances may be exploited to use forms closer to the cutting edge of interlanguage development.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the process of trying to reach an agreement on a series of difficult questions was considered most likely to require the use of complex language.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the calculation of error-free clauses has merit”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“one can also try to measure the range of syntactic forms used, as these reflect a capacity to draw upon a greater variety of language.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“transacting tasks will push forward interlanguage development because the demands that tasks make will engage the very processes that lead to acquisition.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“such measures are likely to be more sensitive to differences in experimental conditions, detecting weaker effects because these are likely to be based on more variance.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this way, subjects were protected from any special pressure that selection for recording might have had upon their performance.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complexity, in other words, connects with change and the opportunities for development and growth in the interlanguage system.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To combat any practice effect, each of the controls and each of the experimental groups did the tasks in a different order (see Table 3).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the nature of the task would require relatively simple linguistic forms to be used.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It may therefore prioritize lexicalized language (Ellis, 1987) and the way learners, during tasks, avoid rule-based, constructed language, instead preferring to use more idiom-based language (Sinclair, 1991) to enable communication to proceed more smoothly.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ellis, 1987 source
- Not matchedcites Sinclair, 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“decisions to attend to one area are usually made at the expense of attending to another.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Ellis (1987) found that accuracy on the regular (rule-governed) form of the past tense declined according to lack of planned discourse being engaged, whereas performance on the irregular (lexical) past form was hardly affected by these conditions.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ellis (1987) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it was seen as requiring the least cognitive effort and allowing the greatest attention to language form.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“attention and noticing are central for second language development”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Schmidt, 1990 source
- Not matchedcites Schmidt, 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“such a focus makes noticing more likely and also enables language teaching goals of accuracy and complexity (Skehan, 1992) to be pursued more effectively.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Skehan, 1992
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Crookes (1989) reported a study in which providing subjects with pretask planning time leads to greater complexity and variety of language but no significant increases in accuracy.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It was seen as giving scope for more complex language but also demanding greater cognitive effort, therefore allowing less attention to be devoted to form.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“What seems to be happening is that the goals of complexity and accuracy compete for limited information processing resources and that what is achievable depends on the precise allocational decisions made.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When the lower level of his performance was noticed, his results were removed from the data set.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The framework also suggests that midtask manipulations may also influence the balance among the goals of fluency, complexity, and accuracy.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But these conclusions are based on just three tasks.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Subsequently, one subject had to be discarded when it was realized that the college had not applied its own selection policy to him.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“They were, quite simply, devices for the transmission of neutral and arbitrary information.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes' (1989) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But we interpret this finding to suggest naturalness of discourse, in that native speakers also engage in a greater use of such linguistic behaviors to enable them to cope with the problem of real-time.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this way, the risk of basing the research project on unpopular and unproductive tasks was reduced.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Crookes (1989) seemed to be testing for specific increases in accuracy, whereas we were more interested in detecting a more generalized accuracy effect.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A generally similar pattern of results is reported in Alvarez-Ossario (1994).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Alvarez-Ossario (1994)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even so, it must be borne in mind that the effect, in such a case, was on accuracy, not on complexity.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Crookes (1989) looked for specific effects on a wide range of variables, whereas the present study used a more global measure based on all contributory influences on error and correctness.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Crookes' (1989) tasks, for example, a LEGO assembly, were classroom tasks and did not have much connection with the subjects' real lives.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes' (1989) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In any case here, even if there were an effect that has not been detected in the present study, the underlying cause may be task familiarity, or simply improvements in proficiency over time.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In other words, it may be that the subjects under the unplanned condition, who would benefit most from the use of techniques to protect time for ongoing planning, are unable to exploit them.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The students were following courses of instruction, and it may be that this instruction was having an effect.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It may simply be, therefore, that the use of a dependent variable such as error-free clauses is more sensitive to an overall accuracy effect, a proposal perhaps consistent with the weaker finding in this area than for complexity.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But the next condition, detailed planning, seemed to lead to a level of pressure too great for subjects to cope with all aspects of performance, with the result that prioritizing decisions had to be made.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The most comparable study (Crookes, 1989) reported a complexity effect, but no significant differences for accuracy.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes, 1989 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“First, these results contrast with those of Crookes (1989) in that here planning is associated with a greater degree of accuracy, at least some of the time.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It also suggests that midtask and posttask activities are important.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In passing, it should be noted that the Narrative task is less effective at meeting this criterion of real-world connection, as there is obviously an arbitrary, detached quality to producing an imaginary story based on a set of (relatively) unrelated photographs.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Although Ellis (1987) reported such an effect, it was for a study that focused on only one language form (the past tense, so that no complexity dimension was involved) and for which the experimental conditions (talking, alone, into a tape recorder) might be thought to favor accuracy.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ellis (1987) source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First of all, the contrast in findings may be due to the nature of the measures used.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Before the study proper began, a number ol candidate tasks were piloted at a neighboring college in order to determine for each of the three types which task was the most productive of language and the most enjoyable to do.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The authors state this as an assumption.
If there was a practice effect of consistent strength over the three visits of the study, the Personal Information Exchange task, always completed in the second week, would be affected to the same degree as the averaged performance on the other two tasks.
“It was assumed that if there was a practice effect of consistent strength over the three visits of the study, the Personal Information Exchange task, always completed in the second week, would be affected to the same degree as the averaged performance on the other two tasks.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Attention is limited in capacity and its use to achieve one goal can reduce the capacity remaining for the achievement of other goals.
“The general perspective in this article is that attention is limited in capacity and that its use to achieve one goal can reduce the capacity remaining for the achievement of other goals.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The tasks were closely based on types commonly used in classrooms.
“This was unproblematic, as each of the tasks was closely based on types commonly used in classrooms.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The three tasks used are valid representatives of the Personal, Narrative, and Decision task types.
“These three tasks were chosen because they vary the importance of background knowledge and general familiarity, on the one hand, and inherent structure, on the other.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The measures of complexity, accuracy, and fluency used validly capture those constructs.
“the present study used a more global measure based on all contributory influences on error and correctness”
The paper relies on this without support.
The planning conditions (no planning, undetailed, detailed) successfully manipulated planning time and cognitive load as intended.
“detailed planning causes subjects to structure their subsequent task contributions in a more ambitious manner”
The paper relies on this without support.
The subjects' reactions (Narrative task most difficult) reflect actual cognitive difficulty.
“a proposal consistent with the reactions of the subjects, who thought the Narrative task most difficult but produced the most complex language while doing it”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The ways in which information is distributed among learners, and the ways in which they must exchange information can impact learner interaction (Doughty & Pica 1986;Foster & Skehan 1996;Ellis 2003;Pica et al. 2006;Gilabert, Barón & Llanes 2009).”
From Interaction and instructed second language acquisition (2018) · cites this paper as Foster & Skehan 1996
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Second, our choice to use 'accuracy as a reflection to focus on form' (Foster & Skehan, 1996, p. 280) might have been too conservative to get a full insight into the effects of task repetition.”
From Focus on form through task repetition in TBLT (2016) · cites this paper as Foster & Skehan, 1996
Citations
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 601–700 of 1,141
Sahla, S., & Altalhab, S. (2022) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v15n10p45 · Cited by 4
“Foster and Skehan (1996) defined accuracy as “freedom from errors” (pp. 303-304).”
BackgroundJang, H. (2023) · Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language--TESL-EJ · doi:10.55593/ej.27105a6 · Cited by 4
“…exercises such as information-gap activities or jigsaws (e.g., Doughty & Pica, 1986; Skuse, 2014), problem-solving or decision-making tasks (e.g., Foster & Skehan, 1996; Hwang, 2010), and role-plays or simulations (e.g., Byrne, 1986; Park & Cho, 2012) have been widely adopted through pair or…”
BackgroundLinking second language speaking task performance and language testing
Skehan, P. (2023) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s0261444823000344 · Cited by 7
Self-citationTiming of form-focused instruction and development of implicit vs. explicit knowledge
김정은 (2014) · English Teaching · doi:10.15858/engtea.69.2.201406.123 · Cited by 4
LaScotte, D. K. (2019) · Journal of Second Language Studies · doi:10.1075/jsls.17027.las · Cited by 4
Impact of task condition on L2 learners' oral performance
Masoud, R. (2008) · Cited by 4
Fahim, M., Nourzadeh, S., & Fathi, J. (2011) · International Journal of Education · doi:10.5296/ije.v3i2.1281 · Cited by 5
“Abundant positive evidence on this hypothesis has been found in the SLA literature (Crookes, 1989; Ellis, 1987; Foster & Skehan, 1996; Ortega, 1999; Skehan & Foster, 1997; Yuan & Ellis, 2003, to name a few).”
BackgroundMohammad, A. S., & Narjess, A. T. (2012) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 4
The Influence of Task Type on Perceived Fluency
Kovač, M. M. (2016) · Studies in English Language Teaching · doi:10.22158/selt.v4n2p241 · Cited by 4
“accuracy and complexity have been examined by Foster and Skehan (1996), and Skehan and Foster (1997).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe impact of planned preemptive focus on form on Iranian EFL learners’ essay writing ability
Gholami, J., & Aliyari, S. (2015) · International Journal of Pedagogies and Learning · doi:10.1080/22040552.2015.1135500 · Cited by 4
“The findings of Foster and Skehan’s (1996) and mehnert’s (1998) studies verified Skehan’s (1998) limited attentional model. These studies demonstrated that learners could not focus their attention on both form and meaning at the same time. Thus, based on the above-mentioned model, simultaneous dual attention to form a…”
BackgroundInfluentialEffect of Planning on Iranian Intermediate EFL Learners' Mastery of Writing Skill
Mahmoudi, A. (2017) · Theory and Practice in Language Studies · doi:10.17507/tpls.0703.08 · Cited by 4
“They hypothesized that when planning is not guided, learners use preparation time to rehearse language; in contrast, the guided planners intensify the complexity of the task and sometimes the accuracy gets less attention (Foster & Skehan, 1996).”
BackgroundResultThe Impact of Mixed Planning on the Accuracy of Iranian Learners’ Oral Performance
Seifoori, Z., & Birjandi, P. (2008) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 4
Zoghi, M., & Shokri, L. F. (2019) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 4
The Effect of Oral Feedback on Iranian EFL Learners’ Complexity and Accuracy in Speaking
Rahnama, M., Ahmadi, A., Razmjoo, S. A., & Mazandarani, O. (2020) · doi:10.30479/jmrels.2019.10362.1291 · Cited by 4
“Accuracy measures: ratio of error-free clauses (Foster & Skehan, 1996).”
BackgroundExploring the effects of pre-task planning time on EFL learners’ narrative writing
Tootkaboni, A. A., & Pakzadian, M. (2021) · Bellaterra Journal of Teaching & Learning Language & Literature · doi:10.5565/rev/jtl3.851 · Cited by 2
Serrano, R. (2010) · Vigo International Journal of Applied Linguistics · Cited by 4
Varnosfaderani, S. D., Shahnazari, M., & Dabaghi, A. (2021) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/03057356211033345 · Cited by 4
“Sato and Lyster (2012), following Foster and Skehan (1996), define “accuracy” as language production which is free from morphological, syntactic, and word order errors, measured by the ratio of error-free clauses to the total clauses in the speech.”
BackgroundMi mama es bonito: Acquisition of Spanish Gender by Native English Speakers
Alvord, S. M., & McCowen, L. G. (2006) · ScholarsArchive (Brigham Young University) · Cited by 4
Jurkowitz, L. A. (2008) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona) · Cited by 4
Guided planning, task complexity and second language oral development
Thompson, C. (2014) · CLOK (University of Central Lancashire) · Cited by 5
The Influence of the social interactional context on test performance : a sociocultural view
Sun, Y. (2005) · doi:10.22215/etd/2005-07781 · Cited by 4
The development of lexical complexity in sixth-grade intensive English students
Thériault, M. (2015) · Constellation (Université du Québec à Chicoutimi) · Cited by 4
Díaz, L., & Alejandro, M. (2014) · Cited by 4
The Dynamics of English Writing Development in Advanced Chinese Learners
Hou, J. (2017) · University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) · Cited by 4
Assessment of second language fluency
Tavakoli, P. (2025) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s0261444824000417 · Cited by 11
Second language learner engagement in computer-mediated interactive oral tasks
Qiu, X., Lo, Y. Y., Ge, H., & Bui, G. (2025) · Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching · doi:10.14746/ssllt.41317 · Cited by 5
Unraveling the effects of task type and proficiency level on second language learner engagement
Qian, L., Qiu, X., & Occhipinti, S. (2026) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688251408236 · Cited by 4
The Influence of Planning on Accuracy in the Written Production of Korean EFL students
Lee, J. E. (2012) · Studies in Linguistics · doi:10.17002/sil..25.201210.201 · Cited by 3
Adaptive Language Modeling with a Set of Domain Dependent Models
Shi, Y., Wiggers, P., & Jonker, C. M. (2012) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-32790-2_57 · Cited by 3
“However, when dealing with different tasks or situations, people cognitively adapt their language [2].”
BackgroundCognitive-Interactionist Perspectives
Ellis, R., Skehan, P., Li, S., Shintani, N., & Lambert, C. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108643689.006 · Cited by 3
Self-citationOliver, R., & Sato, M. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.024 · Cited by 3
Exploring the Nuts and Bolts of Task Design
Samuda, V., & Bygate, M. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.016 · Cited by 3
Are my learners advanced?: Using measures of complexity and accuracy to analyze L2 Spanish writing
Mangold, M. (2025) · Foreign Language Annals · doi:10.1111/flan.12788 · Cited by 4
Long pauses in Chinese EFL learners speech production
Hu, L. H. (2006) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · Cited by 3
The Effects of Guided vs. Unguided Pressured Planning on EFL Learners' Writing Fluency.
Mohammadnia, Z., & Ayaz, P. (2015) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v8n3p169 · Cited by 5
“A wide range of research has been conducted on the effects of planning on language performance and language acquisition since 1980s (Foster & Skehan, 1996; Wendel, 1997; Wigglesworth, 1997; Mehnert, 1998; Yuan & Ellis, 2003; Kawauchi, 2005, to name but a few).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSyntactic complexity development in spoken language produced by learners of Korean
Nam, J., & 김영주 (2015) · 한국어 교육 · doi:10.18209/iakle.2015.26.1.59 · Cited by 3
Park, S. (2015) · English Teaching · doi:10.15858/engtea.70.2.201506.55 · Cited by 3
“…scores awarded to L2 writing (Carrell & Conner, 1991; Pollitt & Hutchinson, 1987), syntactic complexity (Sinclair, 1984; Yau & Belanger, 1984), lexical complexity (Park, 2013a), cohesive ties (Norment, 1984; Park, 2013b), and linguistic accuracy (Foster & Skehan, 1996; Tarone & Parrish, 1988).”
The Effects of Post-Task CMC Activities and Task Types on Korean EFL Learners’ Oral Performance
한종임, & Kim, N. (2016) · STEM Journal · doi:10.16875/stem.2016.17.2.107 · Cited by 3
Collaborative and individual strategic planning effect on performance of an oral task
Zaccaron, R. (2017) · Avances en educación y humanidades · doi:10.21897/25394185.1484 · Cited by 3
“According to this notion, as learners attend to one aspect of performance – complexity, accuracy or fluency – this may negatively impact the other dimensions as seen in Foster and Skehan (1996), D’Ely (2006) Guará-Tavares (2009) and Skehan et al. (2012).”
BackgroundSyntactic Complexity in Second Language Academic Writing in English: Diversity on Display
Rosmawati, R. (2019) · White Rose University Press eBooks · doi:10.22599/baal1.o · Cited by 3
“…it has been defined and operationalised in a number of ways in the context of applied linguistic and writing research, the most commonly used definitions usually include the following points: elaborateness of language and evidence of variety in syntactic patterns (Ellis 2003; Foster & Skehan 1996).”
BackgroundInfluentialAlimorad, Z., & Bidoki, M. S. Z. (2021) · Porta Linguarum Revista Interuniversitaria de Didáctica de las Lenguas Extranjeras · doi:10.30827/portalin.v0i36.15745 · Cited by 3
“This complexity can be observed in language with respect to how varied and sophisticated the production units or grammatical structures are (Foster & Skehan, 1996; Ortega, 2003; Wolfe-Quintero et al., 1998).”
BackgroundTask-Based Telecollaborative Exchanges between US and Italian Students
Nuzzo, E., & Velásquez, D. C. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.015 · Cited by 3
Designing Pedagogic Tasks for Refugees Learning English to Enter Universities in the Netherlands
Gök, S. Ö., & Michel, M. C. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.017 · Cited by 3
Long, M. H. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.010 · Cited by 4
Impact of task preparedness on L2 oral performance and strategy use
Gu, Q. (2021) · TASK Journal on Task-Based Language Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1075/task.20020.gu · Cited by 3
Bogdanova-Beglarian, N. V., Zaides, K., Verkhovtceva, T., Beradze, M., & Meir, N. (2022) · Languages · doi:10.3390/languages7030229 · Cited by 4
English Language Anxiety and Language Achievement Among EFL Students in Saudi Arabia
Almesaar, O. (2022) · Theory and Practice in Language Studies · doi:10.17507/tpls.1211.04 · Cited by 4
“It has been noted that communication apprehension plays a significant role in determining the presence of anxiety among language learners (Foster & Skehan, 1996; Khan & Al-Mahrooqi, 2015).”
BackgroundYang, C. (2023) · Language Testing in Asia · doi:10.1186/s40468-023-00234-4 · Cited by 3
“Pauses during mouse clicking that were longer than one second, an important threshold for pause measurement (e.g., Foster & Skehan, 1996), and during which participants looked at text outside the blank area (henceforth “whileclicking pauses”), were taken as suggesting hesitation in answering, and…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTHE IMPACTS OF TASK-BASED LANGUAGE LEARNING ON ACCURACY OF EFL LEARNERS’ SPEAKING PERFORMANCES
Quoc, P. D., Trang, N. T. T., & Thanh, C. V. (2023) · European Journal of Applied Linguistics Studies · doi:10.46827/ejals.v6i1.431 · Cited by 3
Jebbour, M. (2021) · Journal of language and Education · doi:10.17323/jle.2021.8620 · Cited by 5
L’incidence d’un enseignement centré sur la forme sur la performance orale
Michaud, G. (2021) · Canadian Modern Language Review/ La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes · doi:10.3138/cmlr-2020-0128 · Cited by 4
THE EFFECT OF TOPIC ON RATE OF SPEECH
García‐Amaya, L. (2008) · Elia · Cited by 3
The Influence of Strategic Planning and Storyline Complexity on EFL Learners’ Narrative Retellings
Saeedi, M. (2019) · Journal of Language Teaching and Learning · doi:10.66887/jltl.v3i1.103 · Cited by 3
Working memory capacity and L2 speech production in a picture description task with repetition
Finardi, K. R. (2008) · Revista de Estudos da Linguagem · doi:10.17851/2237-2083.16.2.129-144 · Cited by 3
Building connected discourse in non-native speech
Lee, Y.-A. (2015) · Pragmatics Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association (IPrA) · doi:10.1075/prag.22.4.03lee · Cited by 3
“For example, some researchers have used speech planning as their analytic unit to measure how the 2 See Bowles (2006) for a review of CA in this field. fluency, complexity and accuracy are accomplished in non-native speech (Foster and Skehan 1996; Yuan and Ellis 2003).”
MethodMihye, K. (2014) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v7n11p1 · Cited by 3
“…(Doughty & Pica, 1986; Fotos & Ellis, 1991; Yule & McDonald, 1990), problem-solving tasks (Duff, 1986; Lynch, 1991), debate-style opinion exchanges (Duff, 1986), decision-making tasks (Brown, 1991; Foster & Skehan, 1996), opinion-gap tasks (Ellis, 2003), and narrative tasks (Foster & Skehan, 1996).”
Farshi, N., & Tavakoli, M. (2014) · Journal of teaching language skills · doi:10.22099/jtls.2014.2045 · Cited by 4
“…of strategic planning on language production have shown fluency enhancement with more mixed results for complexity and accuracy (Ellis, 2009; Foster & Skehan, 1996; Ortega, 1999, 2005; Sangarun, 2005; Skehan, 1998; Skehan & Foster, 1997; Wendel, 1997; Wigglesworth, 1997; Yuan & Ellis, 2003).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialBirjandi, P., & Alipour, S. (2010) · Journal of English Language Studies · Cited by 3
The Effect of Reading on Second-language Learners’ Production in Tasks
Collentine, K. (2016) · Hispania · doi:10.1353/hpn.2016.0022 · Cited by 3
“8 Skehan and Foster (2012) as well as other researchers (e.g., Pallotti 2009) are beginning to examine the usefulness of the typical CAF constructs in TBLT. 9 Spanish is a null-subject language and so the verb tomó ‘drank’ is not preceded by a subject pronoun.”
BackgroundInfluentialExamining the Characteristics of Tunisian Advanced EFL Learners’ Essays
Knouzi, I. (2016) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/978-1-137-46726-3_6 · Cited by 3
Ciriani Dean, A. (2017) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · doi:10.7916/d84f32ms · Cited by 3
“From the TBLT literature, the distinction can also be made between topics involving personal experiences and those more detached from the interlocutor, which contributes to topic familiarity (Foster & Skehan, 1996).”
BackgroundChanging Tasks ... Changing Evidence:A Comparative Study of Two Speaking Proficiency Tests
Plough, I. C., MacMillan, F., & O’Connell, S. P. (2011) · Cited by 3
Sottilotta, E. E., & Cannamela, D. (2019) · EuroAmerican Journal of Applied Linguistics and Languages · doi:10.21283/2376905x.10.133 · Cited by 3
“Indeed, research on the impact of planning on SLA (Ellis, 1987; Foster & Skehan, 1996; Ortega, 1999; Robinson, 1995) demonstrated that “giving learners the opportunity to plan a narrative before they speak it (i.e., pre-task planning) resulted in significant gains in both fluency […] and…”
BackgroundEllis, R., Skehan, P., Li, S., Shintani, N., & Lambert, C. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108643689.012 · Cited by 3
Self-citationA Psycholinguistically Motivated Methodology for Task-Based Language Teaching
Grañena, G., & Yılmaz, Y. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.018 · Cited by 5
Specht, A. L., & D’Ely, R. C. S. F. (2020) · Ilha do Desterro A Journal of English Language Literatures in English and Cultural Studies · doi:10.5007/2175-8026.2020v73n1p43 · Cited by 3
Abtahi, M., Abadikhah, S., & Dehqan, M. (2020) · Journal of Modern Research in English Language Studies · doi:10.30479/jmrels.2020.12281.1527 · Cited by 3
“According to Ellis and Barkhuizen (2005), the two general measures of accuracy are errors per 100 words (Mehnert, 1998) and percentage of error-free clauses (Foster & Skehan, 1996).”
BackgroundThe use of tasks in the teaching of Portuguese as a Second Language
Silveira, R., & Xhafaj, D. C. P. (2020) · Revista Linguagem & Ensino · doi:10.15210/rle.v23i2.17427 · Cited by 3
An exploration of L2 listening problems and their causes
Gao, L. (2014) · Nottingham ePrints (University of Nottingham) · Cited by 2
Sydorenko, T. (2011) · Michigan State University Libraries · doi:10.25335/m5rr1pt59 · Cited by 3
Jong, Y. O. (2026) · Warwick Research Archive Portal (University of Warwick) · doi:10.82444/warw.33491674 · Cited by 3
Neumann, H. (2011) · eScholarship@McGill (McGill) · doi:10.82308/2789 · Cited by 3
Ke-ke, Z. (2019) · Figshare · Cited by 3
Fan, N. (2024) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-024-03758-z · Cited by 3
“…Ortega, 1999; Yuan and Ellis, 2003); however, the studies regarding the measure of accuracy revealed mixed fi ndings, with some reporting positive effects of PTP (e.g., Foster and Skehan, 1996; Tavakoli and Skehan, 2005), while others reporting no signi fi cant effects (e.g., Yuan and Ellis, 2003).”
InfluentialGarcía-Guerrero, E., & Lozano, C. (2025) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s0261444825000011 · Cited by 2
“Based on VanPatten’s (1990) claim that attention is unevenly distributed and learners prioritise meaning over form, Skehan (1996, 2002) proposed exploiting a focus on form by manipulating certain task conditions and reducing cognitive demands.”
Zou, Y., Kuek, F., Cheng, X., et al. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0324486 · Cited by 2
Yan, X., & Pan, Y. (2025) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12724 · Cited by 3
L1 and L2 use in pre-task planning and task repetition: The role of proficiency
Chen, L., Suzuki, Y., & Lambert, C. (2025) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/amaf059 · Cited by 2
L2 motivational self system and learning emotions as predictors of syntactic complexity
Halim, H. A., & Wu, L. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105699 · Cited by 4
Zhang, Y., & Zhang, L. J. (2026) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s0261444825101110 · Cited by 2
“Although CALF is a direct measure of language performance instead of learning, trade-offs among CALF components during L2 performance can offer insights into language development in TBLT (Lambert & Zhang, 2019; Skehan, 1996).”
HongMinkyoung (2018) · 한국어 교육 · doi:10.18209/iakle.2018.29.3.345 · Cited by 2
SECOND LANGUAGE TASK GRADING AND SYNTACTIC COMPLEXITY IN WRITING
Faruji, L. F., & Kharaghani, N. (2019) · BRAIN BROAD RESEARCH IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND NEUROSCIENCE · doi:10.18662/brain/06 · Cited by 2
“According to Foster and Skehan (1996) complexity draws attention to the "progressively more elaborate language", as well as "a greater variety of syntactic patterning" (p.303).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEvaluating Task-Based Language Teaching
Ellis, R., Skehan, P., Li, S., Shintani, N., & Lambert, C. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108643689.017 · Cited by 2
Self-citationA Case Study of a Task-Based Approach for School-Age Learners in China
Gong, Y., & Skehan, P. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.025 · Cited by 2
Self-citationPonce, E. E. G., Pablo, I. M., & Segovia-Hernadez, J. G. (2022) · Porta Linguarum Revista Interuniversitaria de Didáctica de las Lenguas Extranjeras · doi:10.30827/portalin.vi37.15855 · Cited by 2
“Regarding the decision-making task, the teacher categorised this task as difficult because 2 Foster & Skehan, 1996 y Garcia-Ponce et al., 2018 140 of the different requirements to attain its pedagogic goals.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialLiteracy and Literature: Developing Narrative Creative Skills through Creative Writing
Aravani, E., & Themeli, S. (2022) · doi:10.7176/jep/13-11-02 · Cited by 2
TED Talks for Developing (EFL) Oral Production Skills of Secondary School Students
Shawqy, S. A., Hafour, M. F., & Al-Rashidy, A.-S. M. (2022) · مجلة کلية التربية جامعة طنطا · doi:10.21608/mkmgt.2022.139552.1232 · Cited by 2
“Foster and Skehan (1996) reported that fluent speech is identified by fewer pauses, hesitations, repetitions, and a shorter amount of total silence.”
BackgroundThe Writing Cycle and Cognitive Processes that May Affect Learning
Silva, B. B. (2022) · Second language learning and teaching · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-06505-7_3 · Cited by 3
Complexity, fluency and accuracy in study abroad research
Marijuan, S., & Vallejos, C. (2023) · Research methods in applied linguistics · doi:10.1075/rmal.4.09mar · Cited by 2
Effect of Pre-task Planning on the Speaking Accuracy of Iranian EFL Learners
Davaji, A. F., & Ghoorchaei, B. (2023) · Journal of Contemporary Language Research · doi:10.58803/jclr.2023.168993 · Cited by 2
Task communicative function and oral fluency of L1 and L2 speakers
Morrison, A., & Tavakoli, P. (2023) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.12883 · Cited by 4
Differential effects of EFL proficiency and mode on noun phrase use
Bao, G. (2024) · System (Linköping) · doi:10.1016/j.system.2024.103244 · Cited by 2
ASSESSING EFL SPEAKING BASED ON RECONSTRUCTED CAF MEASURES
Alshalan, R. F. (2024) · International Journal of Research in Education Humanities and Commerce · doi:10.37602/ijrehc.2024.5102 · Cited by 2
“Foster and Skehan (1996), reconstructed fluency measures by considering the pauses at the end of clause and mid clause, following native like characteristics where the pause is most frequent at the end and not in the middle of a clause.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEFL Learner’s Noticing of Corrective Feedback: Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency
Yang, Y.-C. C. (2024) · English Teaching & Learning · doi:10.1007/s42321-024-00172-1 · Cited by 6
“Errors per 100 words and error-free clauses were two measures to examine the accuracy of students’ utterances in the three tests (Foster & Skehan, 1996; Meh-nert, 1998; Mota, 2003).”
Alzoubi, O. (2024) · Ampersand · doi:10.1016/j.amper.2024.100193 · Cited by 2
Task design, L1 literacy, and second language oracy
Ryan, J., Foster, P., Wang, Y., Fester, A., & Yap, J. (2024) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263124000445 · Cited by 3
“…and that may or may not be followed by a reformulation Repetitions: Words, phrases, or clauses repeated without modification to syntax, morphology, or word order (Foster & Skehan, 1996, p. 310) Reformulations, false starts, word replacements, repetitions; each expressed as mean per min on task”
InfluentialSelf-citationMediating Language Fluency Development: An Action Research Study in a High-School Chinese Classroom
Jing, L., & Apedoe, X. S. (2025) · Theory and Practice in Language Studies · doi:10.17507/tpls.1501.01 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Foster, P., & Skehan, P.
- Affiliations
- University of West London (GB)
- Venue
- Studies in Second Language Acquisition
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 1996-09
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 299-323
- ISSN
- 0272-2631 (ISSN-L)
- 1470-1545
- OpenAlex
- W2001528051
- Cited by
- 1,147
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 24 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 69 · 2021: 77 · 2020: 99 · 2019: 80 · 2018: 52 · 2017: 57 · 2016: 62 · 2015: 80 · 2014: 60 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 50
- FWCI
- 28.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Studies in Second Language Acquisition (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Linguistics and Language Analysis
- Keywords
- task-based language teaching, task planning, second language performance, fluency, complexity, accuracy, task type, narrative task, decision-making tasks
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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