The DOI matches its Crossref record; 30 of the 30 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 37 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The Influence of Planning and Task Type on Second Language Performance
Open accessAbstract
This study focuses on the impact of different variables on the nature of language performance in the context of task-based instruction. Characteristics of tasks are discussed, and then a framework is offered that can organize the nature of task-based instruction and relevant research. The framework is used to generate predictions regarding the effects of three different tasks (Personal Information Exchange, Narrative, and Decision-Making) and three different implementation conditions for each task (unplanned, planned but without detail, detailed planning) on the variables of fluency, complexity, and accuracy. The study reports strong effects of planning on fluency and clear effects also on complexity, with a linear relationship between degree of planning and degree of complexity. However, a more complex relationship was discovered between planning and accuracy, with the most accurate performance produced by the less detailed planners. In addition, interactions were found between task type and planning conditions, such that the effects of planning were greater with the Narrative and Decision-Making tasks than with the Personal Information Exchange task. The results are discussed in terms of an attentional model of learning and performance and highlight the importance of tradeoff effects between the goals of complexity and accuracy in the context of the use of limited capacity attentional resources. The study contributes to the development of cognitive models of second language performance and addresses a number of pedagogic issues.
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Claims the paper makes
59 Own result · 48 Own interpretation · 14 Own method · 13 Sources not found · 13 No full text of the sources · 6 No basis given · 5 Not checked yet · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Regarding the fluency measures of pauses and silence, the no planning group always produced the least fluency.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We can conclude, therefore (and this is interesting in itself), that general task familiarity does not have an influence on the level of complexity achieved.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The study reports strong effects of planning on fluency”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the Personal and Decision tasks variation in planning produced little difference.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“interactions were found between task type and planning conditions, such that the effects of planning were greater with the Narrative and Decision-Making tasks than with the Personal Information Exchange task.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Detailed planning only led to greater fluency than undetailed planning for the Narrative task.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hypothesis 3 therefore receives some support, but only at a fairly weak level.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hypothesis 2 is accordingly confirmed.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For each task it is noteworthy that the undetailed planners produced the most accurate level of performance.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“with a linear relationship between degree of planning and degree of complexity.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 61
- It may state two separate claims as one. 52
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“a focus on form (rather than a focus on forms, i.e., form in general rather than any form in particular) is very important if language development is to occur (Doughty, 1991)”
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Doughty, 1991 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Saliency and Conclusion sections report that focus on form helped learners acquire English relativization. But the Comprehension and Rule Internalization section says both the meaning-oriented and rule-oriented treatments facilitated acquisition, so the paper does not establish that focus on form, rather than focus on forms, is necessary for language development. Page numbers are not available in the supplied passages. (LLM, conf=0.87)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The figures in Table 6 indicate that pauses and total silence achieved significance for all three tasks, with very high levels achieved for the Narrative and Decision tasks.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, the detailed planners produced a level of accuracy that was greater than the no planning condition for the Personal and Decision tasks, but the no planning condition produced more accurate performance than detailed planning in the Narrative task.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“No significant differences were found for greater variety of present-tense usage (i.e., forms other than the simple present), modals, or conditionals.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The central finding here is that there are significant differences in the proportion of error-free clauses that were used under the different planning conditions, but these differences show a complex pattern.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a more complex relationship was discovered between planning and accuracy, with the most accurate performance produced by the less detailed planners.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The findings for complexity, in contrast, essentially supported Hypothesis 5 across the tasks, with the detailed planners always producing significantly greater complexity than the undetailed planners, who in turn outperformed the no planning group (with only the comparison for the no planners vs. the undetailed planners failing to reach significance).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“for the Personal and Decision tasks there was only an overall effect for planning versus no planning, the results showing little difference between the two planning conditions”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The F ratio of 5.73 for the Decision task is significant at the .01level, with Duncan range tests demonstrating that the no planning condition was significantly different from the two planning conditions but that the two types of planning did not produce significantly different effects.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The syntactic variety results, which provided only limited support for the more specific Hypothesis 3, patterned similarly to the fluency measures, with little difference between the two planning conditions.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results in Table 8 suggest a very strong effect for the planning condition: Detailed planning produced significantly more subordination than undetailed planning, which in turn produced significantly more subordination than no planning.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The accuracy level, it will be recalled, is comparable to that obtained with the Personal task (and above that obtained for the Narrative task).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This effect is of a monotonic nature for the Narrative task, but there is only a binary distinction for the other two tasks (i.e., the detailed and undetailed conditions do not lead to different patterns of pausing and total silence).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Planning produces more of these, rendering the discourse, in one sense, less fluent.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The measures of syntactic variety were not strong, in any sense, and provide no clear support for Hypothesis 6.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is relevant, in this respect, that the changes in accuracy were least for this task, with even a reduction of accuracy level for the detailed versus the undetailed planners.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Consistent with Crookes (1989), complexity became the preeminent goal, but accuracy suffered to some degree, reducing to a point midway between the undetailed and nonplanning conditions for the Personal task, below the no planning conditions for the Narrative task, and only slightly inferior to the undetailed planning for the Decision task.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Here, the Personal and Decision tasks lead (average error proportions of 0.70 and 0.69, respectively), whereas the Narrative task produces the lowest overall accuracy level (0.61).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The least complex language is used with the Personal task (1.18 clauses per c-unit), the Decision task produces more complex language (1.32), and the Narrative task produces the most complex language of all (1.44).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we have to conclude that Hypothesis 5 is only supported to a limited degree and that the results obtained reveal a more complex picture than was predicted.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complexity, in contrast, although never as great as the Narrative task, is higher than the Personal task and shows a more marked effect for planning.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“So it is already striking that there is an accuracy effect in the present study, even though statistically it is not as strong as that for complexity or fluency.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This pattern of results has been replicated in a subsequent study (Foster & Skehan, 1996).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Foster & Skehan, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fluency measures for the Personal task reduced by less than do those for the Decision task and, most of all, the Narrative”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Personal task generates a greater degree of accuracy without achieving much complexity.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With accuracy, the Personal task and the Decision task produce clear (and fairly similar) gains, whereas the degree of improvement for the Narrative task is less marked.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If only base forms are used, such as simple present or simple past tenses, there would seem to be little impetus for interlanguage change to occur through the use of more challenging forms.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This characterization suggests that the Personal task should be easiest and most accessible to learners”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The data set, based on 31 subjects, is otherwise complete.”
plainn = 31- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This task was considered to place the heaviest cognitive load upon the subject and to allow the least attentional resources to be given to language form.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On balance, then, the Narrative task is judged to be easier than the Decision task.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“posttask activities with a strong focus on form can have a beneficial effect on (earlier) task performance itself, provided that learners themselves make the connection between task completion and subsequent posttask activity.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites J.Willis & Willis, 1988
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The c-unit, defined by Brock (1986) as an independent utterance providing referential or pragmatic meaning, allows for ellipsis and is thus a more sensitive measure for the spoken language.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brock (1986) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Clauses would also generalize across a range of different specific forms and not be dependent on any one of them.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The choice of these types was based on an analysis of tasks commonly used in current English language teaching textbooks.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the Narrative and Decision tasks are similar to one another in that they provide relatively low familiarity but a high computational load.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Accuracy, in contrast, concerns control at a particular interlanguage level.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These comparisons do not attain significance in specific pairwise comparisons, but the trend in the results is clear.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complexity emphasizes the organization of what is said and draws attention to the progressively more elaborate language that may be used, as well as a greater variety of syntactic patterning.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a measure of accuracy may not reflect complexity of language and may be the result of relatively simple, well-controlled forms being used to achieve a more target-like use of language.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Crookes (1989) relied principally on specific measures (target-like use of the article system and of plural -s), and this may have been a factor in the lack of significance reported.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fluency also reflects the effectiveness of the planning process and the way propositions can be orchestrated into effective, ongoing discourse.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“accuracy, as a reflection of a focus on form, may have a more conservative orientation, whereas complexity may capture a greater willingness to experiment and to take risks.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complexity is likely to reflect a willingness, on the learner's part, to engage in restructuring as more complex subsys-terns of language are developed.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“the main competition for attentional resources is between meaning and form, with first priority generally being given to meaning (VanPatten, 1990).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites VanPatten, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The experimental groups were each divided into two, and in each case half the subjects were randomly assigned the undetailed planning condition and half the detailed planning condition (see Table 2).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“such a measure should produce good intersubject variation.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Skehan (1992Skehan ( , 1996)), following Schmidt (1990), takes fluency to reflect the primacy of meaning and the capacity to cope with real-time communication.”
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In any case, given the counterbalanced nature of the research design, any trend toward a practice effect on errors does not influence the conclusions to be drawn later.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- The authors state this as an assumption: If there was a practice effect of consistent strength over the three visits of the study, the Personal Information Exchange task, always completed in the second week, would be affected to the same degree as the averaged performance on the other two tasks.
In the paper
“the standard deviations for the measures reported tended to be higher for the planning groups for the complexity measures, suggesting that some subjects interpreted the planning instructions in different ways”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is also likely to be associated with greater risktaking to the extent that actual performances may be exploited to use forms closer to the cutting edge of interlanguage development.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the process of trying to reach an agreement on a series of difficult questions was considered most likely to require the use of complex language.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the calculation of error-free clauses has merit”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“one can also try to measure the range of syntactic forms used, as these reflect a capacity to draw upon a greater variety of language.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“transacting tasks will push forward interlanguage development because the demands that tasks make will engage the very processes that lead to acquisition.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“such measures are likely to be more sensitive to differences in experimental conditions, detecting weaker effects because these are likely to be based on more variance.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this way, subjects were protected from any special pressure that selection for recording might have had upon their performance.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complexity, in other words, connects with change and the opportunities for development and growth in the interlanguage system.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To combat any practice effect, each of the controls and each of the experimental groups did the tasks in a different order (see Table 3).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the nature of the task would require relatively simple linguistic forms to be used.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It may therefore prioritize lexicalized language (Ellis, 1987) and the way learners, during tasks, avoid rule-based, constructed language, instead preferring to use more idiom-based language (Sinclair, 1991) to enable communication to proceed more smoothly.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ellis, 1987 source
- Not matchedcites Sinclair, 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“decisions to attend to one area are usually made at the expense of attending to another.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Ellis (1987) found that accuracy on the regular (rule-governed) form of the past tense declined according to lack of planned discourse being engaged, whereas performance on the irregular (lexical) past form was hardly affected by these conditions.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ellis (1987) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it was seen as requiring the least cognitive effort and allowing the greatest attention to language form.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“attention and noticing are central for second language development”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Schmidt, 1990 source
- Not matchedcites Schmidt, 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“such a focus makes noticing more likely and also enables language teaching goals of accuracy and complexity (Skehan, 1992) to be pursued more effectively.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Skehan, 1992
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Crookes (1989) reported a study in which providing subjects with pretask planning time leads to greater complexity and variety of language but no significant increases in accuracy.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It was seen as giving scope for more complex language but also demanding greater cognitive effort, therefore allowing less attention to be devoted to form.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“What seems to be happening is that the goals of complexity and accuracy compete for limited information processing resources and that what is achievable depends on the precise allocational decisions made.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When the lower level of his performance was noticed, his results were removed from the data set.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The framework also suggests that midtask manipulations may also influence the balance among the goals of fluency, complexity, and accuracy.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But these conclusions are based on just three tasks.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Subsequently, one subject had to be discarded when it was realized that the college had not applied its own selection policy to him.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“They were, quite simply, devices for the transmission of neutral and arbitrary information.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes' (1989) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But we interpret this finding to suggest naturalness of discourse, in that native speakers also engage in a greater use of such linguistic behaviors to enable them to cope with the problem of real-time.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this way, the risk of basing the research project on unpopular and unproductive tasks was reduced.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Crookes (1989) seemed to be testing for specific increases in accuracy, whereas we were more interested in detecting a more generalized accuracy effect.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A generally similar pattern of results is reported in Alvarez-Ossario (1994).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Alvarez-Ossario (1994)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even so, it must be borne in mind that the effect, in such a case, was on accuracy, not on complexity.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Crookes (1989) looked for specific effects on a wide range of variables, whereas the present study used a more global measure based on all contributory influences on error and correctness.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Crookes' (1989) tasks, for example, a LEGO assembly, were classroom tasks and did not have much connection with the subjects' real lives.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes' (1989) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In any case here, even if there were an effect that has not been detected in the present study, the underlying cause may be task familiarity, or simply improvements in proficiency over time.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In other words, it may be that the subjects under the unplanned condition, who would benefit most from the use of techniques to protect time for ongoing planning, are unable to exploit them.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The students were following courses of instruction, and it may be that this instruction was having an effect.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It may simply be, therefore, that the use of a dependent variable such as error-free clauses is more sensitive to an overall accuracy effect, a proposal perhaps consistent with the weaker finding in this area than for complexity.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But the next condition, detailed planning, seemed to lead to a level of pressure too great for subjects to cope with all aspects of performance, with the result that prioritizing decisions had to be made.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The most comparable study (Crookes, 1989) reported a complexity effect, but no significant differences for accuracy.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes, 1989 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“First, these results contrast with those of Crookes (1989) in that here planning is associated with a greater degree of accuracy, at least some of the time.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crookes (1989) source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It also suggests that midtask and posttask activities are important.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In passing, it should be noted that the Narrative task is less effective at meeting this criterion of real-world connection, as there is obviously an arbitrary, detached quality to producing an imaginary story based on a set of (relatively) unrelated photographs.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Although Ellis (1987) reported such an effect, it was for a study that focused on only one language form (the past tense, so that no complexity dimension was involved) and for which the experimental conditions (talking, alone, into a tape recorder) might be thought to favor accuracy.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ellis (1987) source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First of all, the contrast in findings may be due to the nature of the measures used.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Before the study proper began, a number ol candidate tasks were piloted at a neighboring college in order to determine for each of the three types which task was the most productive of language and the most enjoyable to do.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The authors state this as an assumption.
If there was a practice effect of consistent strength over the three visits of the study, the Personal Information Exchange task, always completed in the second week, would be affected to the same degree as the averaged performance on the other two tasks.
“It was assumed that if there was a practice effect of consistent strength over the three visits of the study, the Personal Information Exchange task, always completed in the second week, would be affected to the same degree as the averaged performance on the other two tasks.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Attention is limited in capacity and its use to achieve one goal can reduce the capacity remaining for the achievement of other goals.
“The general perspective in this article is that attention is limited in capacity and that its use to achieve one goal can reduce the capacity remaining for the achievement of other goals.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The tasks were closely based on types commonly used in classrooms.
“This was unproblematic, as each of the tasks was closely based on types commonly used in classrooms.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The three tasks used are valid representatives of the Personal, Narrative, and Decision task types.
“These three tasks were chosen because they vary the importance of background knowledge and general familiarity, on the one hand, and inherent structure, on the other.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The measures of complexity, accuracy, and fluency used validly capture those constructs.
“the present study used a more global measure based on all contributory influences on error and correctness”
The paper relies on this without support.
The planning conditions (no planning, undetailed, detailed) successfully manipulated planning time and cognitive load as intended.
“detailed planning causes subjects to structure their subsequent task contributions in a more ambitious manner”
The paper relies on this without support.
The subjects' reactions (Narrative task most difficult) reflect actual cognitive difficulty.
“a proposal consistent with the reactions of the subjects, who thought the Narrative task most difficult but produced the most complex language while doing it”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The ways in which information is distributed among learners, and the ways in which they must exchange information can impact learner interaction (Doughty & Pica 1986;Foster & Skehan 1996;Ellis 2003;Pica et al. 2006;Gilabert, Barón & Llanes 2009).”
From Interaction and instructed second language acquisition (2018) · cites this paper as Foster & Skehan 1996
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Second, our choice to use 'accuracy as a reflection to focus on form' (Foster & Skehan, 1996, p. 280) might have been too conservative to get a full insight into the effects of task repetition.”
From Focus on form through task repetition in TBLT (2016) · cites this paper as Foster & Skehan, 1996
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Qiu, X., Ge, H., & Cai, J. (2024) · IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral-2024-0096 · Cited by 14
“This study explores three types of interactive tasks commonly adopted in textbooks and task-based research (Ellis 2018; Foster and Skehan 1996; Garcia-Ponce and Tavakoli 2022; Geng and Ferguson 2013).”
Analysis of Repair Distribution, Error Correction Rates And Repair Successfulness In L2*
Kovač, M. M., & Milatović, B. (2012) · Studia Linguistica · doi:10.1111/stul.12000 · Cited by 12
Corrective Feedback in EFL Classrooms: Learner Negotiation Strategies and Uptake
Samar, R. G., & ShayesteFar, P. (2009) · Cited by 12
Teacher transformation of textbook tasks in Vietnamese EFL high school classrooms
Nguyen, B. T. T., Newton, J., & Crabbe, D. (2018) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.12.03ngu · Cited by 12
Creating Effective Blended Language Learning Courses
Mizza, D., & Rubio, F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108355285 · Cited by 33
Task‐Related Variation in Computer‐Assisted Language Learning
Heift, T., & Rimrott, A. (2012) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2012.01392.x · Cited by 14
St Aying Abroad with the Family
Muñoz, C. (2010) · ITL Review of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1075/itl.160.02mun · Cited by 12
Learner attention to form in ACCESS task-based interaction
Dao, P., Iwashita, N., & Gatbonton, E. (2016) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168816651462 · Cited by 14
“Thus, it is possible that pre-task modeling affected their performance (Foster & Skehan, 1996; Kim & McDonough, 2011; Ortega, 2005; Willis & Willis, 2007).”
BackgroundElder, C., & Wigglesworth, G. (2006) · Cited by 12
Task-Based Language Assessment
Norris, J. M., & East, M. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.029 · Cited by 15
Task Complexity and SL Development: Does Task Complexity Matter?
Salimi, A., & Dadashpour, S. (2012) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.05.189 · Cited by 13
“…on tasks and investigated task difficulty, task complexity, task design, performance condition, and the effects they have on language learning and language performance (Foster & Skehan, 1996; Samuda & Bygate, 2005; Tavakoli, 2009; Gilabert, 2009; Ahmadian & Tavakoli, 2011; Salimi et al. in press).”
BackgroundTask and Performance-Based Assessment
Wigglesworth, G., & Frost, K. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-02326-7_8-1 · Cited by 13
Planning and production in computer-mediated communication (CMC) writing
Adams, R. J., Amani, S., Newton, J., & Alwi, N. A. N. M. (2014) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.7.06ada · Cited by 12
Task and Performance Based Assessment
Wigglesworth, G. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-30424-3_171 · Cited by 14
The Effects Of Planning On L2 Writing: A Study Of Korean Learners Of English As A Foreign Language
Shin, Y. (2010) · Iowa Research Online (University of Iowa) · Cited by 11
Thondhlana, J., & Smith, A. F. V. (2012) · Journal of Business and Technical Communication · doi:10.1177/1050651912458922 · Cited by 12
“We identified a number of performance conditions as analytical variables in this study (Candlin, 1987; Foster & Skehan, 1996; Robinson, Ting, & Urwin, 1996).”
MethodSaito, K. (2018) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.468 · Cited by 11
Kolmogorov complexity metrics in assessing L2 proficiency: An information-theoretic approach
Gui, W., Wang, H., & Wang, L. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1024147 · Cited by 12
“In light of these similarities, we hold that there should be no difference between the two samples based on the Trade-off Hypothesis and Cognition Hypothesis (Foster and Skehan, 1996; Robinson, 2001).”
BackgroundSánchez, L., & Sunesson, M. (2023) · Journal of Second Language Writing · doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2023.100986 · Cited by 13
Halo effects in rating data: Assessing speech fluency
O’Grady, S. (2023) · Research Methods in Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1016/j.rmal.2023.100048 · Cited by 13
A Feasibility Study of Task-based Teaching of College English Writing in Chinese EFL Context
Cao, L. (2012) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v5n10p80 · Cited by 11
Ayand, F. K., & Shafiee, S. (2016) · International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature · doi:10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.5n.3p.133 · Cited by 11
“For measuring their ability in accuracy, the method suggested and employed by Foster and Skehan (1996) was used.”
MethodSyntactic complexity of online newspaper editorials across countries
Indarti, D. (2018) · Studies in English Language and Education · doi:10.24815/siele.v5i2.11320 · Cited by 11
“The results of the study reveal the manifestation of syntactic complexity in second language writing in terms of how varied and sophisticated the production units or the grammatical structures are (Foster & Skehan, 1996; Ortega, 2003; Wolfe-Quintero et al., 1998; Lu, 2010).”
BackgroundResultHasnain, S., & Halder, S. (2021) · World Futures · doi:10.1080/02604027.2021.1996189 · Cited by 14
“The role of pre-task planning in supporting fluent language output has been supported in previous studies (Abdi et al., 2012; Foster & Skehan, 1996; Ortega, 1999).”
BackgroundMethodResultChan, C. S. C. (2013) · PolyU Institutional Research Archive (Hong Kong Polytechnic University) · Cited by 11
Learning English as Thai Adult Learners: An Insight into Experience in Using Learning Strategies
Suwanarak, K. (2015) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v8n12p144 · Cited by 11
“In research on classroom tasks carried out by Foster and Skehan (1996), an effect for planning time on accuracy was found.”
Simard, D., Fortier, V., & Zuniga, M. (2011) · Journal of French Language Studies · doi:10.1017/s0959269510000591 · Cited by 11
Ellis, R., Skehan, P., Li, S., Shintani, N., & Lambert, C. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108643689.010 · Cited by 11
Self-citationSyntactic complexity as a predictor of second language writing proficiency and writing quality
Park, J.-H. (2017) · Michigan State University Libraries · doi:10.25335/m5td9ng1p · Cited by 11
Effects of reasoning demands triggered by genre on Chinese EFL learners' writing performance
Peng, C., & Bao, Z. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1164262 · Cited by 10
The Effect of Task-Based Syllabus on Iranian EFL Learners
Rahmati, M. (2019) · Budapest International Research and Critics in Linguistics and Education (BirLE) Journal · doi:10.33258/birle.v2i4.447 · Cited by 10
McAllister, J., & Belan, S. (2014) · ASp · doi:10.4000/asp.4564 · Cited by 12
Creativity and Learners' Performance on Argumentative and Narrative Written Tasks
Zabihi, R., Rezazadeh, M., & Ansari, N. (2013) · Cited by 10
Kim, Y., Nam, J., & Lee, S. (2016) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 10
Derakhshan, A. (2018) · International Journal of Instruction · doi:10.12973/iji.2018.11433a · Cited by 15
“…on the effect of task repetition on accuracy and complexity (Birjandi & Ahangari, 2008), on the planning and task types (Ellis & Yuan, 2004; Foster & Skehan, 1996, 1999), on the task structure and processing conditions (Skehan & Foster, 1999), on the writing tasks and collaboration (Storch…”
Language Instruction Through Tasks
Skehan, P. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-46301-8_21 · Cited by 10
Self-citationDeveloping a framework for using E-portfolios as a research and assessment tool
Shin, S. (2013) · ReCALL · doi:10.1017/s0958344013000189 · Cited by 11
“…of their underlying ability and systematic variation across different tasks; it has been well documented that the language use samples elicited from planned performance are more accurate and fluent than ones produced in spontaneous tasks (Ellis, 1987; Foster & Skehan, 1996; Mehnert, 1998).”
BackgroundKallio, H., Šimko, J., Huhta, A., Karhila, R., Vainio, M., Lindroos, E., Hildén, R., & Kurimo, M. (2018) · AFinLA-e Soveltavan kielitieteen tutkimuksia · doi:10.30660/afinla.73137 · Cited by 11
Bernardini, P., & Granfeldt, J. (2019) · International Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1111/ijal.12257 · Cited by 10
Extroversion and group oral performance: A mixed quantitative and discourse analysis approach
Gan, Z. (2008) · Cited by 10
Her, J.-H. (2007) · Research Commons (University of Waikato) · Cited by 10
Donate, Á. (2018) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 10
The Adoption of Task-Based Language Teaching in Diverse Contexts
Newton, J. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.036 · Cited by 9
Technology-Mediated Task-Based Language Teaching
González‐Lloret, M., & Ziegler, N. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868327.019 · Cited by 18
Jiang, L. (2022) · Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing · doi:10.1155/2022/1048311 · Cited by 9
“For example, in the article “Cognition and Tasks” [23], Skeha and Forster divided pretask activities into teaching activities, implicit learning activities, demonstration activities, and awareness-raising activities, all of which can be regarded as classroom teaching tasks based on the CMC technology [24].”
BackgroundModern English Drama and the Students’ Fluency and Accuracy of Speaking
Pishkar, K., Moinzadeh, A., & Dabaghi, A. (2017) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v10n8p69 · Cited by 9
Detecting development of speaking proficiency with a group oral test: A quantitative analysis
Leaper, D. A., & Brawn, J. R. (2018) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/0265532218779626 · Cited by 10
“•• Global accuracy: the proportion of error-free clauses to total clauses (Foster & Skehan, 1996).”
BackgroundNazemi, M., & Rezvani, E. (2019) · Contemporary Research in Education and English Language Teaching · doi:10.33094/26410230.2019.14.45.56 · Cited by 10
“…complexity) and task implementation factors such as task planning time, task repetition and task familiarity can affect taskbased interactional features, second language (L2) performance, and/or subsequent learning (e.g., Bygate, 2001; Foster and Skehan, 1996; Philp et al., 2006; Robinson, 2007).”
BackgroundThe effects of strategic planning and rehearsal on second language group discussion task performance
Stroud, R. (2019) · Language Learning Journal · doi:10.1080/09571736.2019.1610475 · Cited by 10
Sánchez, L., & Kalamakis, S. Z. (2022) · System (Linköping) · doi:10.1016/j.system.2022.102949 · Cited by 9
김선경 (2013) · English Teaching · doi:10.15858/engtea.68.3.201309.51 · Cited by 9
“Foster and Skehan (1996, 1997) attempted task contrasts for overall language le따ning and segmented language competence by measuring results of accuracy, fluency, and complexity, and found that learners cannot simultaneously pay full attention to these three goals.”
BackgroundMemória de trabalho e desempenho em tarefas de L2
Fontanini, I., Weissheimer, J., Bergsleithner, J. M., Perucci, M., & D’Ely, R. C. S. F. (2005) · Revista Brasileira de Lingüística Aplicada · doi:10.1590/s1984-63982005000200009 · Cited by 11
The Relationship between WTC and Oral Proficiency Measurements in the Study Abroad Context
Robson, G. G. (2015) · International Education Studies · doi:10.5539/ies.v8n12p56 · Cited by 9
“A c-unit is defined as “independent utterance providing pragmatic meaning” (Foster & Skehan, 1996, p. 310).”
BackgroundMacaro, E. (2014) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.7.03mac · Cited by 9
Gan, Z., Oon, P., & Davison, C. (2017) · Language Testing in Asia · doi:10.1186/s40468-017-0051-2 · Cited by 9
“It was thus apparent that Skehan and his colleagues’ (Foster and Skehan 1996; Skehan and Foster 1997) observation that more interactive tasks lead to more complex language performance did not find support in the Bygate and Michel et al. (2007) studies.”
Jahromi, D. A. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-98533-6_28 · Cited by 11
Using Whatsapp to develop L2 oral production
Weissheimer, J., Caldas, V. O., & Marques, F. (2018) · Revista Leitura · doi:10.28998/2317-9945.2018v1n60p21-38 · Cited by 9
The effects of planning with writing on the fluency, complexity, and accuracy of L2 oral narratives
Chau, H. T. (2014) · Michigan State University Libraries · doi:10.25335/m58d7b · Cited by 9
IELTS (International English Language Testing System)
O’Sullivan, B. (2018) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0359 · Cited by 10
Yahya, M. Y. (2019) · CentAUR (University of Reading) · doi:10.48683/1926.00089016 · Cited by 14
Effects of speaker types and L1 backgrounds on the linguistic complexity of learners’ writing
Wang, H., Gui, W., Wang, N., & Wang, L. (2023) · International Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1111/ijal.12526 · Cited by 8
“Furthermore,asthesetextssharesimilar taskcomplexitycharacteristics(e.g.,writinggenre,timepressure,andproductionmode),weproposethatthereshould be no discernible differences between the two samples based on the trade-off hypothesis and cognition hypothesis (Foster & Skehan, 1996; Robinson, 2001).”
BackgroundThe Impact of the Generic Features of Tasks on L2 Learners' Written Production
Salimi, A., Shafaei, A., & Kuhi, D. (2012) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.05.178 · Cited by 8
Peng, C. X. (2024) · Assessing Writing · doi:10.1016/j.asw.2024.100876 · Cited by 10
Evolution of Self-Repair Behaviour in Narration Among Adult Learners of French as a Second Language
Simard, D., French, L. M., & Zuniga, M. (2017) · Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.7202/1042677ar · Cited by 8
“…planning lightens the cognitive load of production tasks, resulting in an increase in the fluency (e.g., Foster & Skehan, 1996) and the complexity of output (e.g., Crookes, 1989; Ellis, 1987; Foster & Skehan, 1996; Ortega, 1999; Yuan & Ellis, 2003), thereby increasing self-repair frequency.”
BackgroundExamining the Task Complexity in ELT Coursebooks
Barrot, J. S. (2019) · The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher · doi:10.1007/s40299-019-00448-2 · Cited by 10
Opening Pandora’s Box: How Does Peer Assessment Affect EFL Students’ Writing Quality?
Meletiadou, E. (2021) · Languages · doi:10.3390/languages6030115 · Cited by 9
“…were performed to determine whether using PA and TA can improve the writing quality of adolescent EFL students’ essays in four aspects which are regarded as the ideal indicators of writing quality in the literature (Foster and Skehan 1996; Wigglesworth and Storch 2009) as opposed to using TA only.”
Inoue, C., & Lam, D. M. K. (2021) · ETS Research Report Series · doi:10.1002/ets2.12322 · Cited by 9
A Multimodal Discourse Analysis of Pictures in ELT Textbooks: Modes of Communication in Focus
(2021) · Jordan Journal of Modern Languages and Literature · doi:10.47012/jjmll.13.4.2 · Cited by 8
Hasnain, S., & Halder, S. (2022) · Journal of Education · doi:10.1177/00220574221101377 · Cited by 14
“Accuracy as “ freedom from error ” (Skehan, 1996) includes sub-constructs such as percentage of error-free clauses, errors per AS unit, errors per 100 words, target-146 like use of verbs, plural, and tenses.”
BackgroundMethodFirst Language Literacy and Second Language Oracy: A Partial Replication of Foster and Skehan (1996)
Ryan, J., Foster, P., Fester, A. M., Wang, Y., Field, J., Kearney, C. P., & Yap, J. R. (2022) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12557 · Cited by 9
Self-citationAsgarikia, P. (2014) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.417 · Cited by 8
Fredriksson, C. (2014) · ReCALL · doi:10.1017/s0958344014000238 · Cited by 8
“We can expect that these special affordances with chat have consequences for the learners’ interaction and language use, i.e., the complexity of their utterances (see Foster & Skehan, 1996).”
BackgroundKitajima, R. (2013) · Linguistics and Education · doi:10.1016/j.linged.2013.01.003 · Cited by 8
The effect of program type and proficiency level on learners' written production
Serrano, R. (2011) · Revista Española de Lingüística Aplicada/Spanish Journal of Applied Linguistics · Cited by 8
Akyüz, H. İ., & Keser, H. (2015) · Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences · doi:10.18844/cjes.v1i1.76 · Cited by 8
“Foster and Skehan (1996) showed that giving students time before the task for planning increases performance and correctness.”
BackgroundEffects of Collaborative Tasks on EFL Learners’ Written Production
Jelodar, Z. Y., & Farvardin, M. T. (2018) · International Journal of Instruction · doi:10.29333/iji.2019.12126a · Cited by 9
Gamificar Tareas de Lectura en una Segunda Lengua: un Estudio Preliminar
González, J. P. O. (2019) · Revista de Estudios y Experiencias en Educación · doi:10.21703/rexe.20191836orejudo13 · Cited by 13
Hokamura, M. (2018) · JALT Journal · doi:10.37546/jaltjj40.1-2 · Cited by 8
“In this study complexity is defined as “progressively more elaborate language and a greater variety of syntactic patterning” (Foster & Skehan, 1996, p. 303), and accuracy is defined as “the ability to be free from errors while using language to communicate” (Wolfe-Quintero, Inagaki, & Kim, 1998, p.…”
BackgroundKorean EFL Learners’ Language Development across Proficiency Levels in Written Productions
황은경 (2012) · English Teaching · doi:10.15858/engtea.67.3.201209.27 · Cited by 8
The impact of interactive discussions on L2 Chinese composition writing
Liao, J. (2010) · doi:10.17077/etd.s29hekty · Cited by 8
“Foster and Skehan (1996) argue that students’ performance is related to task type.”
BackgroundTime Distribution and the Acquisition of English as a Foreign Language
Serrano, R. (2007) · Tesis Doctorals en Xarxa (Consorci de Serveis Universitaris de Catalunya) · Cited by 8
Working memory, L2 proficiency, and L2 speech performance across different task types
Sun, P. P., Li, C., & Liang, Z. (2025) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688251368633 · Cited by 9
Ren, W., Wu, Y., & Peng, Y. (2023) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688231176066 · Cited by 7
“Among the first group of studies, Foster and Skehan (1996) explored the effects of task planning conditions (unplanned, undetailed, and detailed planning) on the complexity, accuracy, and fluency of learner language production across three task types (personal information exchange, narrative, and…”
Willis, J. R. (2024) · Task-based language teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.16.10wil · Cited by 7
The Impact of Task-Based Approach on EFL Learner’s Performance
Elmahdi, O. E. H. (2016) · World Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.22158/wjer.v3n2p301 · Cited by 10
The use of discourse markers in L2 Italian
Marco, A. D. (2016) · Language Interaction and Acquisition · doi:10.1075/lia.7.1.03dem · Cited by 7
The impact of a short-term stay abroad on L2 Spanish syntactic complexity development in narratives
Long, A. Y., & Solon, M. (2020) · Study Abroad Research in Second Language Acquisition and International Education · doi:10.1075/sar.19002.lon · Cited by 8
The influence of pre-task planning on speed and breakdown fluency
Kovač, M. M., & Vickov, G. (2019) · Journal for Foreign Languages · doi:10.4312/vestnik.11.87-102 · Cited by 7
Implementing Task-basedlanguage teaching in an Asian context
Nguyen, A. T., & Jaspaert, K. (2020) · ITL Review of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1075/itl.16022.ngu · Cited by 8
Working Memory and Lexical Knowledge in L2 Argumentative Writing
Yi, B. (2013) · Asian Journal of English Language Teaching · doi:10.65961/ajelt-2013-1-005 · Cited by 7
“It is believed that tasks features are able to account for the variation in accuracy, fluency, and complexity of language production (Foster & Skehan, 1996; Gilarbert, 2007; Kuiken & Veddar, 2007).”
BackgroundWillis, J. R. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-4226-5_5 · Cited by 11
Ponce, E. E. G., Lengeling, M. M., Pablo, I. M., & Arroyo, L. M. C. (2023) · Íkala Revista de Lenguaje y Cultura · doi:10.17533/udea.ikala.v28n1a04 · Cited by 11
“A possible explanation for these results may be limitations in students’ attentional capacities (Foster & Skehan, 1996; Larsen-Freeman, 2009; Skehan, 2009; Skehan & Foster, 1999).”
BackgroundResultCai, Y., & Zhang, L. J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1142651 · Cited by 7
Malaysia, U. S., Karim, A., Kabilan, M. K., Rahman, S., Shahed, F. H., & Rahman, M. M. (2021) · Mextesol journal. · doi:10.61871/mj.v45n2-6 · Cited by 10
“En general, las tareas no solo promueven la adquisición de lenguas, sino también tienen un impacto significativo en procesos de aprendizaje y productos lingüísticos (Foster y Skehan, 1996).”
BackgroundThe Role of Language for Thinking and Task Selection in EFL Learners' Oral Collocational Production
Wang, H., & Shih, S. (2011) · Foreign Language Annals · doi:10.1111/j.1944-9720.2011.01135.x · Cited by 7
Task-Based Learning with Children
Pinter, A. (2015) · Bloomsbury Academic eBooks · doi:10.5040/9781474257145.ch-007 · Cited by 11
Determining the Difficulty Level of Listening Tasks
Mohamadi, Z. (2013) · Theory and Practice in Language Studies · doi:10.4304/tpls.3.6.987-994 · Cited by 7
Holistic and analytic processing modes in non-native learners’ performance of narrative tasks
Maad, M. R. B. (2010) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2010.09.013 · Cited by 7
The Effect of Task Type on Accuracy and Complexity in IELTS Academic Writing
Lan, N. T. (2015) · Cited by 7
PLANNING TIME EFFECT ON FLUENCY, COMPLEXITY AND ACCURACY OF L2 OUTPUT
Rouhi, A., & Marefat, H. (2006) · Cited by 7
Metadata
- Authors
- Foster, P., & Skehan, P.
- Affiliations
- University of West London (GB)
- Venue
- Studies in Second Language Acquisition
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 1996-09
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 299-323
- ISSN
- 0272-2631 (ISSN-L)
- 1470-1545
- OpenAlex
- W2001528051
- Cited by
- 1,147
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 24 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 69 · 2021: 77 · 2020: 99 · 2019: 80 · 2018: 52 · 2017: 57 · 2016: 62 · 2015: 80 · 2014: 60 · 2013: 53 · 2012: 50
- FWCI
- 28.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Studies in Second Language Acquisition (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Linguistics and Language Analysis
- Keywords
- task-based language teaching, task planning, second language performance, fluency, complexity, accuracy, task type, narrative task, decision-making tasks
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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