Why is there no simple way of measuring animal welfare?
Abstract
Abstract Although the physiological and behavioural changes that can indicate poor welfare are generally agreed upon, using these measures in practice sometimes yields results that are hard to interpret. For example, different types of measure may suggest quite different things about an animal's welfare. Such contradictions are often due to the differing properties of the variables being measured. How each variable responds to a stressor can be affected by several factors - the type of unpleasant stimulus to which the animal is exposed; when and for how long exposure occurs; the animal's psychological state, eg does it feel that it is in control?; and the time at which the measurement is made, relative to the stressor. Typical responses also often differ between species and between individuals, and may even change in a single individual over time. Furthermore, some responses used to assess welfare lack specificity: they can be elicited by neutral or even pleasant events as well as by aversive ones. Appreciating these factors is vital when designing experiments, when choosing what to measure along with each welfare variable, and when interpreting results. Even after taking these factors into consideration, interpreting a result can still be difficult. One approach then is to consider the effects on welfare of the changes measured, eg if there is immunosuppression, does the animal succumb to disease? Another is to use the animal's behaviour to indicate its preference for, or aversion to, particular environments. Ultimately, however, interpreting welfare measures involves subjective judgements which will be influenced by the nature of our concern for the animal under consideration. By raising these problems, we hope that this review will highlight and clarify the apparent contradictions that sometimes emerge in scientific studies of animal welfare, and help researchers improve the designs of their experiments for the benefit of the animals concerned.
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Animals of different ages may react differently to the same scenario or resource allocation.
“Animals of different ages may react differently to the same scenario or resource allocation (110).”
From Comparison of animal welfare assessment tools and methodologies: need for an effective approach for captive elephants in Asia (2024) · cites this paper as [110]
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Davis, N., Schaffner, C. M., & Smith, T. E. (2005) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2004.08.020 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Changing concepts of farm animal welfare: bridging the gap between applied and basic research
Rushen, J. (2003) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/s0168-1591(02)00281-2 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Facial expression: An under-utilised tool for the assessment of welfare in mammals
Descovich, K. (2017) · ALTEX · doi:10.14573/altex.1607161 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Bassett, L., Buchanan‐Smith, H. M., McKinley, J., & Smith, T. E. (2003) · Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science · doi:10.1207/s15327604jaws0603_07 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
“Both behavioral and physiological measures may be useful as welfare indicators (Duncan & Fraser, 1997; Mason & Mendl, 1993).”
BackgroundIndicators of stress in equitation
von Borstel, U. K., Visser, E. K., & Hall, C. (2017) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2017.02.018 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Concepts in the care and welfare of captive elephants
VEASEY, J. (2006) · International Zoo Yearbook · doi:10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00063.x · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“Like the challenge zoos face in managing elephant welfare, the challenges scientists face in assessing animal welfare is also a considerable one (see Mason & Mendl, 1993).”
BackgroundThe Influence of Keel Bone Damage on Welfare of Laying Hens
Riber, A. B., Casey-Trott, T. M., & Herskin, M. S. (2018) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2018.00006 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
“However, the physiological animal welfare indicators have been criticized for their lack of specificity (37) and sensitivity [as for example for H/L-ratio as a measure of stress in laying hens (52)].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialQuality-of-life assessment in pet dogs
Wojciechowska, J. I., & Hewson, C. J. (2005) · Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association · doi:10.2460/javma.2005.226.722 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Fluctuating asymmetry as an animal welfare indicator — A review of methodology and validity
Knierim, U., Dongen, S. V., Forkman, B., Tuyttens, F., Špinka, M., Campo, J. L., & Weissengruber, G. E. (2007) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.02.014 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Training Nonhuman Primates Using Positive Reinforcement Techniques
Prescott, M. J., & Buchanan‐Smith, H. M. (2003) · Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science · doi:10.1207/s15327604jaws0603_01 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“McKinley et al. (2003/this issue) describe a method for in homecage collection of urine (as a less-stressful alternative to blood sampling) that is a refinement of that of Anzenberger and Gossweiler (1993); however, as noted by the authors, collection of saliva may be a more satisfactory replacement for blood (and uri…”
MethodStress and distress: evaluating their impact for the well-being of zoo animals
Wielebnowski, N. C. (2003) · Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association · doi:10.2460/javma.2003.223.973 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Welfare by Design: The Natural Selection of Welfare Criteria
Barnard, C. J., & Hurst, J. L. (1996) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.1017/s0962728600019151 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Welfare considerations in therapy and assistance animals
Serpell, J. A., Coppinger, R., Fine, A. H., & Peralta, J. M. (2010) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-381453-1.10023-6 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Part, C., Kiddie, J., Hayes, W. A., Mills, D. S., Neville, R. F., Morton, D. B., & Collins, L. (2014) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.05.018 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“levels have been found to increase after exercise [17, 18] and excitement [19], and appear to provide an indication of arousal [16] without specifying the emotional valence of that arousal [16, 20, 21].”
How has the risk of predation shaped the behavioural responses of sheep to fear and distress?
Dwyer, C. M. (2004) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.1017/s0962728600028384 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Invited review: Animal-based indicators for on-farm welfare assessment for dairy goats
Battini, M., Vieira, A., Barbieri, S., Ajuda, I., Stilwell, G., & Mattiello, S. (2014) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2013-7493 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“Welfare assessment requires a multidimensional approach (Mason and Mendl, 1993), corresponding to a multi-criteria evaluation issue, and it should aim to determine the actual welfare of animals, including both their physical and mental state (EFSA, 2012).”
BackgroundIn pursuit of peak animal welfare; the need to prioritize the meaningful over the measurable
Veasey, J. S. (2017) · Zoo Biology · doi:10.1002/zoo.21390 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Kroshko, J., Clubb, R., Harper, L., Mellor, E., Moehrenschlager, A., & Mason, G. J. (2016) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.05.010 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“These responses are all affected by stress (reviewed e.g. Clubb et al., 2009, Mason & Veasey 2010), suggesting species differences in typical welfare (where welfare means well-being or affective state; Dawkins, 1990; Mason & Mendl, 1993).”
BackgroundStress Reactivity and Coping in Horse Adaptation to Environment
Budzyńska, M. (2014) · Journal of Equine Veterinary Science · doi:10.1016/j.jevs.2014.05.010 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Animal Welfare and the Paradox of Animal Consciousness
Dawkins, M. S. (2015) · Advances in the study of behavior · doi:10.1016/bs.asb.2014.11.001 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Bashaw, M. J., Gibson, M. D., Schowe, D. M., & Kucher, A. S. (2016) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2016.08.003 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“Further, no sinle measure directly corresponds to an animal’s welfare state and ifferent measures do not always yield the same welfare evaluation Mason and Mendl, 1993).”
BackgroundKistler, C., Hegglin, D., Würbel, H., & König, B. (2011) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2011.10.014 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“Preference tests are widely used in animal welfare research (Mason and Mendl, 1993) and may yield useful information about what animals want (Dawkins, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodHäsler, B., Hiby, E. F., Gilbert, W. H., Obeyesekere, N., Bennani, H., & Rushton, J. (2014) · PLoS neglected tropical diseases · doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003270 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“There is no single, reliable measure of an animal’s welfare [24].”
BackgroundWhy It Is Important to Understand Animal Behavior
Mench, J. A. (1998) · ILAR Journal · doi:10.1093/ilar.39.1.20 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“However, physiological measures also have many limitations, and it has generally proven difficult to interpret their significance as indicators of welfare (Dawkins 1980; Mason and Mendl 1993; Rushen and de Passille 1992).”
BackgroundMcGreevy, P. D., Berger, J. M., de Brauwere, N., Doherty, O., Harrison, A. M., Fiedler, J. M., Jones, C., McDonnell, S. M., McLean, A. N., Nakonechny, L., et al. (2018) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani8030041 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Perceived importance and responsibility for market-driven pig welfare: Literature review
Thorslund, C. A., Aaslyng, M. D., & Lassen, J. (2016) · Meat Science · doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.11.008 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Review: Towards an integrated concept of animal welfare
Reimert, I., Webb, L. E., van Marwijk, M. A., & Bolhuis, J. E. (2023) · animal · doi:10.1016/j.animal.2023.100838 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Equine on-farm welfare assessment: a review of animal-based indicators
Costa, E. D., Murray, L. A. M., Dai, F., Canali, E., & Minero, M. (2014) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.7120/09627286.23.3.323 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Hurst, J. L., Barnard, C. J., Nevison, C. M., & West, C. D. (1997) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.1017/s0962728600020042 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Eye Blink Rates and Eyelid Twitches as a Non-Invasive Measure of Stress in the Domestic Horse
Merkies, K., Ready, C., Farkas, L., & Hodder, A. J. (2019) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani9080562 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“Assessing stress responses in animals appears more accurate when using a combination of both behavioural and physiological indicators [11,12].”
Programmatic approaches to assessing and improving animal welfare in zoos and aquariums
Barber, J. C. E. (2009) · Zoo Biology · doi:10.1002/zoo.20260 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Evaluation of physiological and behavioral stress-dependent parameters in agility dogs
Pastore, C., Pirrone, F., Balzarotti, F., Faustini, M., Pierantoni, L., & Albertini, M. (2011) · Journal of Veterinary Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jveb.2011.01.001 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Housing and welfare in laboratory rats: time-budgeting and pathophysiology in single-sex groups
Hurst, J. L., Barnard, C. J., Hare, R. D., WHEELDON, E. B., & WEST, C. D. (1996) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1006/anbe.1996.0179 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“…which view the physiological and behavioural elements of stress as generally adaptive responses, and their association with deleterious effects as resulting from the nature of environmental events and individual differences in response to such events (Bohus et al. 1987; Mason & Mendl 1993).”
BackgroundLeliveld, L. M. C., Düpjan, S., Tuchscherer, A., & Puppe, B. (2016) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.02.002 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
El-lethey, H. S., Jungi, T. W., & Huber-Eicher, B. (2001) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0031-9384(01)00475-9 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
The Welfare of Free-Living Wild Animals: Methods of Assessment
KIRKWOOD, J. K., Sainsbury, A. W., & Bennett, P. M. (1994) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.1017/s0962728600017036 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Owczarczak-Garstecka, S. C., & Burman, O. H. P. (2016) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0163620 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Foot-pad dermatitis in broilers and turkeys: prevalence, risk factors and prevention
Berg, C. (1998) · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Tuyttens, F., Vanhonacker, F., Poucke, E. V., & Verbeke, W. (2010) · Livestock Science · doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2010.03.008 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Dawkins, M. S. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198848981.001.0001 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Cognitive Bias in Zoo Animals: An Optimistic Outlook for Welfare Assessment
Clegg, I. L. K. (2018) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani8070104 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“Animal welfare is an all-encompassing concept and notoriously hard to measure, where the most accurate approach is to collect behavioral, physiological and cognitive data over a period of time and then weight the results to achieve some sort of meaningful overall picture of welfare [9,11,67,68].”
BackgroundVeasey, J. S., Waran, N. K., & Young, R. J. (1996) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.1017/s0962728600018571 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Titulaer, M., Blackwell, E. J., Mendl, M., & Casey, R. A. (2013) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2013.05.001 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“Since individual measures on their own may not provide reliable indicators of welfare and can be difficult to interpret (Mason and Mendl, 1993), a combination of measures was used: the novel measure of cognitive bias, as well as more established measures of urinary cortisol, behavioural observation and staff assessmen…”
MethodImpact of the separate pre-slaughter stages on broiler chicken welfare
Jacobs, L., Delezie, E., Duchateau, L., Goethals, K., & Tuyttens, F. (2016) · Poultry Science · doi:10.3382/ps/pew361 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“Animal welfare is multidimensional (Mason and Mendl, 1993), which calls for a multi-criteria assess-”
BackgroundMcMeekan, C. M., Mellor, D. J., Stafford, K., BRUCE, R., WARD, R., & Gregory, N. (1998) · Australian Veterinary Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1998.tb10160.x · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Thirty Years After Brambell: Whither Animal Welfare Science?
Mench, J. A. (1998) · Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science · doi:10.1207/s15327604jaws0102_1 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
People's Willingness to Pay for Farm Animal Welfare
Bennett, R. M. (1996) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.1017/s0962728600018285 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
How happy is your pet? The problem of subjectivity in the assessment of companion animal welfare
Serpell, J. A. (2019) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.7120/09627286.28.1.057 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Galhardo, L., Correia, J., & Oliveira, R. F. (2008) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.1017/s0962728600032164 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Welfare assessment tools in zoos: from theory to practice
Jones, N., Sherwen, S. L., Robbins, R., McLelland, D. J., & Whittaker, A. L. (2022) · Veterinary Sciences · doi:10.3390/vetsci9040170 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“This is likely representative of a situation having varied impacts on welfare of animals at differing stages of physiological and neurological development [73].”
BackgroundIs quality of life a useful concept for companion animals?
Taylor, K., & Mills, D. S. (2007) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.1017/s0962728600031730 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Beaver, A., Weary, D. M., & von Keyserlingk, M. A. G. (2021) · Journal of Dairy Science · doi:10.3168/jds.2020-19609 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Welfare comparisons within and across species
Browning, H. (2023) · Philosophical Studies · doi:10.1007/s11098-022-01907-1 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“There are many examples of these differences—urination and defecation in a new environment is a scent-marking behaviour in mice but a sign of fear in rats, and bulls show decreased corticosteroid response after tethering, while pigs show increased response (Mason & Mendl, 1993).”
BackgroundThe Concept of Farm Animal Welfare: Citizen Perceptions and Stakeholder Opinion in Flanders, Belgium
Vanhonacker, F., Verbeke, W., Poucke, E. V., Pieniak, Z., Nijs, G., & Tuyttens, F. (2010) · Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10806-010-9299-6 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Similar to animal science based conceptions, this study has resulted in a complex and multi-dimensional conception of farm animal welfare (Fraser 1995; Mason and Mendl 1993).”
ResultHowell, C. P., & Cheyne, S. M. (2018) · Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science · doi:10.1080/10888705.2018.1500286 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“However, the psychological state of animals is notoriously difficult to judge and is often clouded with our own anthropomorphically biased opinions and subjective judgments influenced by our concern for the animal in question (Little & Sommer, 2002; Mason & Mendl, 1993).”
BackgroundInfluentialAssessing cattle welfare at slaughter – Why is it important and what challenges are faced?
Wigham, E. E., Butterworth, A., & Wotton, S. (2018) · Meat Science · doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2018.06.010 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Scott, K., Chennells, D. J., Armstrong, D., Taylor, L. L., Gill, B. P., & Edwards, S. A. (2007) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.1017/s0962728600030931 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Finka, L. R. (2022) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani12030298 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Izzo, G. N., Bashaw, M. J., & Campbell, J. (2011) · Journal of comparative psychology · doi:10.1037/a0024294 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“In addition to methodological and reporting problems (Swaisgood & Shepherdson, 2005), baseline conditions vary widely, it is unclear how welfare measures are related to each other and individual and species differences create variability in enrichment effects (Mason & Mendl, 1993).”
BackgroundPrioritisation of companion dog welfare issues using expert consensus
Buckland, E., Corr, S., Abeyesinghe, S. M., & Wathes, C. M. (2014) · Animal Welfare · doi:10.7120/09627286.23.1.039 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“Animal welfare is a complex and multi-dimensional construct (Mason & Mendl 1993; Fraser et al 1997) and in recognition of the plethora of welfare issues an individual or a population may encounter, scientists have developed methods to try to assess which issues cause the greatest impairment to…”
Animal Welfare Science: Recent Publication Trends and Future Research Priorities
Walker, M., Díez-León, M., & Mason, G. (2014) · International Journal of Comparative Psychology · doi:10.46867/ijcp.2014.27.01.03 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
- Authors
- Mason, G., & Mendi, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Mason, G
- ORCID
- Mason, G
- Venue
- Animal Welfare
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 1993-11
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 301-319
- ISSN
- 0962-7286 (ISSN-L)
- 2054-1538
- OpenAlex
- W2620308027
- Cited by
- 391
- References
- 74
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 11.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Animal Welfare (publishedVersion)
- WBI Studies Repository (submittedVersion)
- The Atrium (University of Guelph) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Veterinary Pharmacology and Anesthesia
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal testing and alternatives
- Keywords
- animal welfare assessment, stress response, individual differences in stress response, immunosuppression
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