Solar Water Splitting Cells
Open accessAbstract
ADVERTISEMENT RETURN TO ISSUEPREVReviewNEXTADDITION / CORRECTIONThis article has been corrected. View the notice.Solar Water Splitting CellsMichael G. Walter, Emily L. Warren, James R. McKone, Shannon W. Boettcher†, Qixi Mi, Elizabeth A. Santori, and Nathan S. Lewis*View Author Information Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, 210 Noyes Laboratory, 127-72 California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125* Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]†Current address: Department of Chemistry, University of Oregon, Eugene OR 97403.Cite this: Chem. Rev. 2010, 110, 11, 6446–6473Publication Date (Web):November 10, 2010Publication History Received23 July 2010Published online10 November 2010Published inissue 10 November 2010https://doi.org/10.1021/cr1002326Copyright © 2010 American Chemical SocietyRIGHTS & PERMISSIONSACS AuthorChoiceArticle Views108224Altmetric-Citations7461LEARN ABOUT THESE METRICSArticle Views are the COUNTER-compliant sum of full text article downloads since November 2008 (both PDF and HTML) across all institutions and individuals. These metrics are regularly updated to reflect usage leading up to the last few days.Citations are the number of other articles citing this article, calculated by Crossref and updated daily. Find more information about Crossref citation counts.The Altmetric Attention Score is a quantitative measure of the attention that a research article has received online. Clicking on the donut icon will load a page at altme…
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Practical water decomposition thresholds demand higher voltages to overcome activation barriers caused by overpotential.
“While electrochemical water-splitting requires a theoretical voltage of 1.23 V according to thermodynamics, practical water decomposition thresholds demand higher voltages to overcome activation barriers caused by overpotential.[209,210]”
From Advances in Blue Energy Fuels: Harvesting Energy from Ocean for Self‐Powered Electrolysis (2025) · cites this paper as [210]
Electrochemical water-splitting requires a theoretical voltage of 1.23 V according to thermodynamics.
“While electrochemical water-splitting requires a theoretical voltage of 1.23 V according to thermodynamics, practical water decomposition thresholds demand higher voltages to overcome activation barriers caused by overpotential.[209,210]”
From Advances in Blue Energy Fuels: Harvesting Energy from Ocean for Self‐Powered Electrolysis (2025) · cites this paper as [210]
Cites
Electrochemical Photolysis of Water at a Semiconductor Electrode
FUJISHIMA, A., & HONDA, K. (1972) · Nature · doi:10.1038/238037a0 · Cited by 34,169 · see citing works
Jaramillo, T. F., Jørgensen, K. P., Bonde, J., Nielsen, J. H., Horch, S., & Chorkendorff, I. (2007) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1141483 · Cited by 6,100 · see citing works
Computational high-throughput screening of electrocatalytic materials for hydrogen evolution
Greeley, J., Jaramillo, T. F., Bonde, J., Chorkendorff, I., & Nørskov, J. K. (2006) · Nature Materials · doi:10.1038/nmat1752 · Cited by 4,097 · see citing works
A realizable renewable energy future
Turner, J. A. (1999) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.285.5428.687 · Cited by 1,642 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Benchmarking Heterogeneous Electrocatalysts for the Oxygen Evolution Reaction
McCrory, C. C. L., Jung, S., Peters, J. C., & Jaramillo, T. F. (2013) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/ja407115p · Cited by 7,026 · see citing works
Design of electrocatalysts for oxygen- and hydrogen-involving energy conversion reactions
Jiao, Y., Zheng, Y., Jaroniec, M., & Qiao, S. Z. (2015) · Chemical Society Reviews · doi:10.1039/c4cs00470a · Cited by 5,388 · see citing works
Li, Y., Wang, H., Xie, L., Liang, Y., Hong, G., & Dai, H. (2011) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/ja201269b · Cited by 5,001 · see citing works
McCrory, C. C. L., Jung, S., Ferrer, I. M., Chatman, S. M., Peters, J. C., & Jaramillo, T. F. (2015) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/ja510442p · Cited by 4,145 · see citing works
Earth-abundant catalysts for electrochemical and photoelectrochemical water splitting
Roger, I., Shipman, M. A., & Symes, M. D. (2017) · Nature Reviews Chemistry · doi:10.1038/s41570-016-0003 · Cited by 3,503 · see citing works
Tian, J., Liu, Q., Asiri, A. M., & Sun, X. (2014) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/ja503372r · Cited by 2,373 · see citing works
Hydrogen evolution by a metal-free electrocatalyst
Zheng, Y., Jiao, Y., Zhu, Y., Li, L. H., Han, Y., Chen, Y., Du, A., Jaroniec, M., & Qiao, S. Z. (2014) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms4783 · Cited by 2,236 · see citing works
Wang, Q., Hisatomi, T., Jia, Q., Tokudome, H., Zhong, M., Wang, C., Pan, Z., Takata, T., Nakabayashi, M., Shibata, N., et al. (2016) · Nature Materials · doi:10.1038/nmat4589 · Cited by 1,684 · see citing works
Catalyzing the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) with molybdenum sulfide nanomaterials
Benck, J. D., Hellstern, T. R., Kibsgaard, J., Chakthranont, P., & Jaramillo, T. F. (2014) · ACS Catalysis · doi:10.1021/cs500923c · Cited by 1,617 · see citing works
Lu, Q., Yu, Y., Ma, Q., Chen, B., & Zhang, H. (2016) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.201503270 · Cited by 1,447 · see citing works
Wu, H. B., Xia, B. Y., Yu, L., Yu, X.-Y., & Lou, X. W. (2015) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms7512 · Cited by 1,434 · see citing works
Faber, M. S., Dziedzic, R., Lukowski, M. A., Kaiser, N. S., Ding, Q., & Jin, S. (2014) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/ja504099w · Cited by 1,372 · see citing works
Yan, Y., Xia, B. Y., Zhao, B., & Wang, X. (2016) · Journal of Materials Chemistry A · doi:10.1039/c6ta08075h · Cited by 1,368 · see citing works
Recent advances in heterogeneous electrocatalysts for the hydrogen evolution reaction
Zeng, M., & Li, Y. (2015) · Journal of Materials Chemistry A · doi:10.1039/c5ta02974k · Cited by 1,294 · see citing works
Highly Active Electrocatalysis of the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction by Cobalt Phosphide Nanoparticles
Popczun, E. J., Read, C. G., Roske, C. W., Lewis, N. S., & Schaak, R. E. (2014) · Angewandte Chemie International Edition · doi:10.1002/anie.201402646 · Cited by 1,240 · see citing works
Self-citationHigh Electrocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution Activity of an Anomalous Ruthenium Catalyst
Zheng, Y., Jiao, Y., Zhu, Y., Li, L. H., Han, Y., Chen, Y., Jaroniec, M., & Qiao, S.-Z. (2016) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/jacs.6b11291 · Cited by 1,110 · see citing works
Low Overpotential in Vacancy-Rich Ultrathin CoSe<sub>2</sub> Nanosheets for Water Oxidation
Liu, Y., Cheng, H., Lyu, M., Fan, S., Liu, Q., Zhang, W., Zhi, Y., Wang, C., Xiao, C., Wei, S., et al. (2014) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/ja5085157 · Cited by 1,094 · see citing works
Nanotechnology‐Enabled Energy Harvesting for Self‐Powered Micro‐/Nanosystems
Wang, Z. L., & Wu, W. (2012) · Angewandte Chemie International Edition · doi:10.1002/anie.201201656 · Cited by 1,063 · see citing works
Kibsgaard, J., & Jaramillo, T. F. (2014) · Angewandte Chemie International Edition · doi:10.1002/anie.201408222 · Cited by 1,048 · see citing works
Lu, Z., Zhu, W., Yu, X., Zhang, H., Li, Y., Sun, X., Wang, X., Wang, H., Wang, J., Luo, J., et al. (2014) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.201304759 · Cited by 1,025 · see citing works
Anchoring zero valence single atoms of nickel and iron on graphdiyne for hydrogen evolution
Xue, Y., Huang, B., Yi, Y., Guo, Y., Zuo, Z., Li, Y., Jia, Z., Liu, H., & Li, Y. (2018) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-03896-4 · Cited by 1,011 · see citing works
Cao, L., Luo, Q., Liu, W., Lin, Y., Liu, X., Cao, Y., Zhang, W., Wu, Y., Yang, J., Yao, T., et al. (2018) · Nature Catalysis · doi:10.1038/s41929-018-0203-5 · Cited by 901 · see citing works
A Particulate Photocatalyst Water-Splitting Panel for Large-Scale Solar Hydrogen Generation
Goto, Y., Hisatomi, T., Wang, Q., Higashi, T., Ishikiriyama, K., Maeda, T., Sakata, Y., Okunaka, S., Tokudome, H., Katayama, M., et al. (2018) · Joule · doi:10.1016/j.joule.2017.12.009 · Cited by 754 · see citing works
Qiu, H. ‐., Ito, Y., Cong, W., Tan, Y., Liu, P., Hirata, A., Fujita, T., Tang, Z., & Chen, M. (2015) · Angewandte Chemie International Edition · doi:10.1002/anie.201507381 · Cited by 756 · see citing works
Li, D. J., Maiti, U. N., Lim, J., Choi, D. S., Lee, W. J., Oh, Y., Lee, G. Y., & Kim, S. O. (2014) · Nano Letters · doi:10.1021/nl404108a · Cited by 653 · see citing works
Theoretical Insights into Heterogeneous (Photo)electrochemical CO<sub>2</sub>Reduction
Xu, S., & Carter, E. A. (2019) · Chemical Reviews · doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00481 · Cited by 652 · see citing works
You, B., Jiang, N., Sheng, M., Gul, S., Yano, J., & Sun, Y. (2015) · Chemistry of Materials · doi:10.1021/acs.chemmater.5b02877 · Cited by 631 · see citing works
Youn, D. H., Han, S., Kim, J. Y., Kim, J. Y., Park, H., Choi, S. H., & Lee, J. S. (2014) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/nn5012144 · Cited by 559 · see citing works
Kweon, D. H., Okyay, M. S., Kim, S.-J., Jeon, J.-P., Noh, H.-J., Park, N., Mahmood, J., & Baek, J.-B. (2020) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-020-15069-3 · Cited by 546 · see citing works
Gu, Y., Chen, S., Ren, J., Jia, Y. A., Chen, C., Komarneni, S., Yang, D., & Yao, X. (2018) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/acsnano.7b05971 · Cited by 540 · see citing works
Peng, S., Li, L., Han, X., Sun, W., Srinivasan, M., Mhaisalkar, S. G., Cheng, F., Yan, Q., Chen, J., & Ramakrishna, S. (2014) · Angewandte Chemie International Edition · doi:10.1002/anie.201408876 · Cited by 428 · see citing works
Wan, X., Wu, H. B., Guan, B. Y., Luan, D., & Lou, X. W. (. (2020) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.201901349 · Cited by 410 · see citing works
Wang, T., Liu, L., Zhu, Z., Papakonstantinou, P., Hu, J., Liu, H., & Li, M. (2013) · Energy Environ. Sci. · doi:10.1039/c2ee23513g · Cited by 393 · see citing works
Structural and Electronic Optimization of MoS <sub>2</sub> Edges for Hydrogen Evolution
Wang, H., Xiao, X., Liu, S., Chiang, C.-L., Kuai, X., Peng, C.-K., Lin, Y.-C., Meng, X., Zhao, J., Choi, J., et al. (2019) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/jacs.9b09932 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Ruthenium‐Based Single‐Atom Alloy with High Electrocatalytic Activity for Hydrogen Evolution
Chen, C., Wu, D., Li, Z., Zhang, R., Kuai, C., Zhao, X., Dong, C., Qiao, S., Liu, H., & Du, X. (2019) · Advanced Energy Materials · doi:10.1002/aenm.201803913 · Cited by 384 · see citing works
An overview on Pd-based electrocatalysts for the hydrogen evolution reaction
Sarkar, S., & Peter, S. C. (2018) · Inorganic Chemistry Frontiers · doi:10.1039/c8qi00042e · Cited by 360 · see citing works
Connor, P., Schuch, J., Kaiser, B., & Jaegermann, W. (2020) · Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie · doi:10.1515/zpch-2019-1514 · Cited by 351 · see citing works
Lao, M., Li, P., Jiang, Y., Pan, H., Dou, S. X., & Sun, W. (2022) · Nano Energy · doi:10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.107231 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Hod, I., Deria, P., Bury, W., Mondloch, J. E., Kung, C.-W., So, M., Sampson, M. D., Peters, A. W., Kubiak, C. P., Farha, O. K., et al. (2015) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms9304 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Interfacial sp C–O–Mo Hybridization Originated High-Current Density Hydrogen Evolution
Yao, Y., Zhu, Y., Pan, C., Wang, C., Hu, S., Xiao, W., Chi, X., Fang, Y., Yang, J., Deng, H., et al. (2021) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/jacs.1c02831 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Face the Edges: Catalytic Active Sites of Nanomaterials
Ni, B., & Wang, X. (2015) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.201500085 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Monolithic aerogel photocatalysts: a review
Wan, W., Zhang, R., Ma, M., & Zhou, Y. (2018) · Journal of Materials Chemistry A · doi:10.1039/c7ta09227j · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Wei, H., Xi, Q., Chen, X., Guo, D., Ding, F., Yang, Z., Wang, S., Li, J., & Huang, S. (2018) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.201700733 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Dong, H., Liu, C., Ye, H., Hu, L., Fugetsu, B., Dai, W., Cao, Y., Qi, X., Lu, H., & Zhang, X. (2015) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep17542 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Liu, H., Hu, Z., Liu, Q., Sun, P., Wang, Y., Chou, S., Hu, Z., & Zhang, Z. (2020) · Journal of Materials Chemistry A · doi:10.1039/d0ta09538a · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Li, C., Wang, T., Liu, B., Chen, M., Li, A., Zhang, G., Du, M., Wang, H., Liu, S. F., & Gong, J. (2019) · Energy & Environmental Science · doi:10.1039/c8ee02768d · Cited by 157 · see citing works
High-Performance Water Electrolysis System with Double Nanostructured Superaerophobic Electrodes
Xu, W., Lu, Z., Wan, P., Kuang, Y., & Sun, X. (2016) · Small · doi:10.1002/smll.201600189 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Li, H., Zhao, X., Liu, H., Chen, S., Yang, X., Lv, C., Zhang, H., She, X., & Yang, D. (2018) · Small · doi:10.1002/smll.201802824 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Zhang, W., Huang, B., Wang, K., Yang, W., Lv, F., Li, N., Chao, Y., Zhou, P., Yang, Y., Li, Y., et al. (2021) · Advanced Energy Materials · doi:10.1002/aenm.202003192 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Zhang, Y., Zuo, L., Huang, Y., Zhang, L., Lai, F., Fan, W., & Liu, T. (2015) · ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering · doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.5b00700 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Recent advances in cobalt based heterogeneous catalysts for oxygen evolution reaction
Badruzzaman, A., Yuda, A., Ashok, A., & Kumar, A. (2020) · Inorganica Chimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.ica.2020.119854 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Three dimensional CNTs aerogel/MoSx as an electrocatalyst for hydrogen evolution reaction
Reddy, S., Du, R., Kang, L., Mao, N., & Zhang, J. (2016) · Applied Catalysis B: Environmental · doi:10.1016/j.apcatb.2016.04.007 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Qiu, H. ‐., Ito, Y., Cong, W., Tan, Y., Liu, P., Hirata, A., Fujita, T., Tang, Z., & Chen, M. (2015) · Angewandte Chemie · doi:10.1002/ange.201507381 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Pu, Z., Liu, Q., Asiri, A. M., Obaid, A. Y., & Sun, X. (2014) · Journal of Power Sources · doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.03.093 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Monolayer MoS <sub>2</sub> quantum dots as catalysts for efficient hydrogen evolution
Qiao, W., Yan, S., Song, X., Zhang, X., Sun, Y., Chen, X., Zhong, W., & Du, Y. (2015) · RSC Advances · doi:10.1039/c5ra19893c · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Lin, C., Gao, Z., & Jin, J. (2019) · ChemSusChem · doi:10.1002/cssc.201802488 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Xu, X., Chu, H., Zhang, Z., Dong, P., Baines, R., Ajayan, P. M., Shen, J., & Ye, M. (2017) · ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces · doi:10.1021/acsami.7b09866 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Advances in Blue Energy Fuels: Harvesting Energy from Ocean for Self‐Powered Electrolysis
Ock, I. W., Yin, J., Wang, S., Zhao, X., Baik, J. M., & Chen, J. (2025) · Advanced Energy Materials · doi:10.1002/aenm.202400563 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Xia, X., Zheng, Z., Zhang, Y., Zhao, X., & Wang, C. (2014) · International Journal of Hydrogen Energy · doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.04.092 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Inocêncio, C. V. M., Holade, Y., Morais, C., Kokoh, K. B., & Napporn, T. W. (2023) · Electrochemical Science Advances · doi:10.1002/elsa.202100206 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Cheng, Y., Yuan, P., Xu, X., Guo, S., Pang, K., Guo, H., Zhang, Z., Wu, X., Zheng, L., & Song, R. (2019) · Nanoscale · doi:10.1039/c9nr07277b · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Zhao, M., Li, T., Jia, L., Li, H., Yuan, W., & Li, C. M. (2019) · ChemSusChem · doi:10.1002/cssc.201901961 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Chandrasekaran, S., Feaster, J., Ynzunza, J., Li, F., Wang, X., Nelson, A. J., & Worsley, M. A. (2022) · ACS Materials Au · doi:10.1021/acsmaterialsau.2c00014 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Ran, J., Girardi, L., Dražić, G., Wang, Z., Agnoli, S., Xia, H., & Granozzi, G. (2022) · Small · doi:10.1002/smll.202105694 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Andrei, F., Ion, V., Bîrjega, R., Dinescu, M., Enea, N., Pantelica, D., Mihai, M. D., Maraloiu, V.-A., Teodorescu, V. S., Marcu, I.-C., et al. (2021) · Nanomaterials · doi:10.3390/nano11061371 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Aerogels-Inspired based Photo and Electrocatalyst for Water Splitting to Produce Hydrogen
Al-Hamamre, Z., Karimzadeh, Z., Ji, S., Choi, H., & Maleki, H. (2022) · Applied Materials Today · doi:10.1016/j.apmt.2022.101670 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Facile NiCo2S4/C nanocomposite: an efficient material for water oxidation
Aftab, U., Tahira, A., Mazzaro, R., Morandi, V., Abro, M. I., Baloch, M. M., Syed, J. A., Nafady, A., & Ibupoto, Z. H. (2020) · Tungsten · doi:10.1007/s42864-020-00066-2 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Kim, T., Lee, W., Choi, H., Parale, V. G., Patil, U. M., Kanamori, K., Seo, J. G., Bae, Y.-S., Kim, S.-W., & Park, H.-H. (2024) · International Journal of Energy Research · doi:10.1155/2024/1457751 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Kim, T., Jung, H., Choi, H., Lee, W., Patil, U. M., Parale, V. G., Kim, Y., Kim, J., Kim, S.-H., & Park, H.-H. (2024) · Materials Horizons · doi:10.1039/d4mh00242c · Cited by 5 · see citing works
- Authors
- Walter, M. G., Warren, E. L., McKone, J. R., Boettcher, S. W., Mi, Q., Santori, E. A., & Lewis, N. S.
- Affiliations
- California Institute of Technology (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Chemical Reviews
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2010-11-10
- Volume
- 110
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 6446-6473
- ISSN
- 0009-2665 (ISSN-L)
- 1520-6890
- OpenAlex
- W1971113415
- Cited by
- 9,388
- References
- 4
- Citations by year
- 2026: 283 · 2025: 352 · 2024: 437 · 2023: 511 · 2022: 543 · 2021: 682 · 2020: 768 · 2019: 893 · 2018: 969 · 2017: 1010 · 2016: 944 · 2015: 747 · 2014: 576 · 2013: 348 · 2012: 229
- FWCI
- 7.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Chemical Reviews (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- CaltechAUTHORS (California Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment › Advanced Photocatalysis Techniques
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment › TiO2 Photocatalysis and Solar Cells
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment › Iron oxide chemistry and applications
- Keywords
- solar water splitting, photoelectrochemical cells, photocatalysis, hydrogen production, water oxidation, solar fuels, semiconductor photoelectrodes
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review