Advances in Blue Energy Fuels: Harvesting Energy from Ocean for Self‐Powered Electrolysis

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The high efficiency of a perovskite solar cell (PSC) is associated with a high absorption coefficient, direct bandgap transition, low effective mass, long diffusion length, and relatively high carrier mobility of free electrons and holes.

“The high efficiency of a perovskite solar cell (PSC) is associated with a high absorption coefficient, direct bandgap transition, low effective mass, long diffusion length, and relatively high carrier mobility of free electrons and holes.[162,163]”

• cites [162] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [163] sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction links high perovskite solar-cell efficiency to large absorption coefficients and long diffusion lengths, and mentions tunable bandgaps and charge-carrier lifetimes. It does not establish a direct bandgap transition, low effective mass, or relatively high mobility of free electrons and holes as contributors to that efficiency. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Conventional electrolysis achieves high energy efficiency (60-70%).

“Despite achieving high energy efficiency (60-70%) [19] and developing electrocatalysts for electrode materials aimed at reducing overpotential”

• cites [19] sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Single-electrode mode offers the simplest TENG structure design, but its performance can be hampered by electrostatic shielding.

“While the single-electrode mode offers the simplest TENG structure design, its performance can be hampered by electrostatic shielding.[136,137]”

• cites [136] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [137] sourceCould not verify

  Sections 2.1–2.2 describe a contact-mode freestanding F-TENG with two electrodes, not the relative simplicity of single-electrode mode. Searches for “single-electrode” and “shielding” found no passage addressing whether electrostatic shielding hampers that mode’s performance. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ocean covers 71% of Earth's surface.

“Ocean energy emerges as one of the most efficient and accessible energy sources, since ocean covers 71% of the Earth's surface.[5,6]”

• cites [5] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [6] sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Water electrolysis still necessitates a continuous input of high-purity electrolyte and an external power supply to maintain the system.

“water electrolysis still necessitates a continuous input of high-purity electrolyte and an external power supply to maintain the system.[29,36]”

• cites [29] sourcePartly supported

  The Operating conditions section says experiments usually use a power supply, and the Reversible hydrogen electrode section stresses electrolyte purity for low-current-density experiments. Neither establishes that water electrolysis generally requires a continuous input of high-purity electrolyte; the Cell design section says an H-cell can instead recirculate electrolyte. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [36] sourcePartly supported

  The Methods section says the tested cells used 1 M NaOH in deionized water and connected the primary electrodes to a power source. It does not say that a continuous input of high-purity electrolyte is necessary. The Methods also describe a solar-powered test with no additional external bias, so the claim that an external power supply is always required overstates the paper. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Thin perovskite active layer materials may generate fewer photons, resulting in a smaller current density in PSC devices, while thicker perovskite materials impact a high recombination rate, affecting overall performance.

“For instance, thin perovskite active layer materials may generate fewer photons, resulting in a smaller current density in PSC devices, while thicker perovskite materials impact a high recombination rate, affecting overall performance.[177,178]”

• cites [177] sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion says carrier recombination affects diffusion length and solar-cell performance. But the Methods describe a film of approximately 230 nm, and the paper does not establish that thinner layers reduce current density or that thicker layers increase recombination. Its support is limited to the general performance effect of recombination, not the claimed thickness trade-off. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [178] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Ocean energy is one of the most efficient and accessible energy sources.

“Ocean energy emerges as one of the most efficient and accessible energy sources, since ocean covers 71% of the Earth's surface.[5,6]”

• cites [5] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [6] sourcePartly supported

  Section 1.2, “Water and waves” (page unavailable), says about 70% of the globe is water and describes a global wave-energy resource, supporting the claim’s broad premise. It does not rank ocean energy among the most efficient or accessible energy sources; it notes that suitable sites are constrained by water depth and distance to users. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Encapsulation is still required in harsh environments like the sea, and challenges such as solar cell module integration, volume reduction, and flexibility remain to be addressed.

“However, encapsulation is still required in harsh environments like the sea, and challenges such as solar cell module integration, volume reduction, and flexibility remain to be addressed.[157,196]”

• cites [157] sourcePartly supported

  Sections 5.4–5.5 describe module-development challenges and say encapsulation is important for stability under outdoor stresses. Section 5.2 discusses a fabrication difficulty with flexible substrates, but also reports a flexible module. The cited passages do not address marine conditions or volume reduction, so those specifics are unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [196] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ocean wave energy exhibits vertical oscillations due to wave motion and directional influences from the wind, resulting in a specific range of frequencies.

“Ocean wave energy exhibits vertical oscillations due to wave motion and directional influences from the wind, resulting in a specific range of frequencies.[222,223]”

• cites [222] sourcePartly supported

  The title and Keywords section describe low-frequency water waves, supporting the claim’s general point about wave frequency. The passages do not describe vertical oscillations, attribute directional effects to wind, or give a specific frequency range; searches for those terms found no further support. (LLM, conf=0.70)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [223] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Seawater-splitting was first investigated by Bennett, involving the HER at the cathode and the chlorine evolution reaction (CIER) at the anode-a two-electron process that yields chlorine or hypochlorite as the value-added product.

“Seawater-splitting was first investigated by Bennett, [215] involving the HER at the cathode and the chlorine evolution reaction (CIER) at the anode-a two-electron process that yields chlorine or hypochlorite as the value-added product.[42]”

• cites [215] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [42] sourcePartly supported

  The paper’s introductory discussion (indexed under Abstract; page unavailable) describes chlorine evolution as a two-electron reaction, calls chlorine a high-value product, and shows a two-electron pathway to hypochlorite. It does not describe hypochlorite as a value-added product; it treats hypochlorite formation as a competing reaction that its seawater-splitting system seeks to avoid. The Bennett priority claim is attached to a different citation, [215], rather than this source’s [42]. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The biased photocurrents of HDP (BiVO4||Fe2O3) reached over 8.3 mA cm-2 at 1.15 V RHE, with a stable photocurrent of 6 mA cm-2 recorded for a continuous 8 h, demonstrating water-splitting to 2H2 and O2 gases with almost complete faradaic efficiency.

“The biased photocurrents of HDP (BiVO 4 ||Fe 2 O 3 ) reached over 8.3 mA cm -2 at 1.15 V RHE (Figure 9i), with a stable photocurrent of 6 mA cm -2 recorded for a continuous 8 h, demonstrating water-splitting to 2H 2 and O 2 gases with almost complete faradaic efficiency (Figure 9j,k).”

• cites [250] sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The self-powered MEG-based seawater-splitting system, driven by ocean wave energy, decomposes water into H2 and O2 using a Pt(cathode)-Pt(anode) two-electrode electrochemical cell in 3.5 wt% NaCl electrolyte, achieving a H2 production rate of 0.76 × 10-3 mL min-1.

“The self-powered MEG-based seawater-splitting system, driven by ocean wave energy (Figure 7o), decomposes water into H 2 and O 2 using a Pt(cathode)-Pt(anode) two-electrode electrochemical cell in 3.5 wt% NaCl electrolyte, achieving a H 2 production rate of 0.76 × 10 -3 mL min -1 (Figure 7p).”

• cites [236] sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

The output performance of the series-connected MEG balls linearly increases with the number, reaching a maximum voltage of 21.17 V when there are eight balls.

“The output performance of the series-connected balls linearly increases with the number, reaching a maximum voltage of 21.17 V when there are eight balls.”

• cites [236] sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Under actual sunlight, unassisted solar water-splitting with an HDP-PV device tandem cell exhibited a photovoltage of 1.2 V and an STH conversion efficiency of 7.7%, corresponding to the crossing point of performance curves of photoanodes and the solar cell (6.3 mA cm-2).

“Under actual sunlight, unassisted solar water-splitting with an HDP-PV device tandem cell exhibited a photovoltage of 1.2 V and an STH conversion efficiency of 7.7%, corresponding to the crossing point of performance curves of photoanodes and the solar cell (6.3 mA cm -2 ) (Figure 9l,m).”

• cites [250] sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

To address the issue of insufficient operational voltage of a single photovoltaic device for water-splitting, multiple devices are connected in series or tandem solar cells are employed.

“To address the issue of insufficient operational voltage of a single photovoltaic device for watersplitting, multiple devices are connected in series or tandem solar cells are employed.[164,237]”

• cites [164] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [237] sourcePartly supported

  In the paper’s main text (pp. 3829–3831), Table 1 reports a higher open-circuit voltage for a perovskite/Si tandem cell than for the listed single-junction perovskite cells. The paper does not say that a single device’s operational voltage is insufficient for water splitting, or that connecting devices in series or using tandem cells addresses that problem. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Achieving a high solar-to-hydrogen (STH) efficiency demands reducing the overpotential of overall water-splitting and developing system manufacturing technology.

“Additionally, achieving a high solar-tohydrogen (STH) efficiency demands reducing the overpotential of overall water-splitting and developing system manufacturing technology.[238]”

• cites [238] sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Zhang et al. introduced a hybrid energy harvesting system that captures wave and solar energy from the ocean using triboelectric nanogenerators and photovoltaic cells, estimating its energy harvesting capabilities based on actual ocean variations.

“Zhang et al. [254] introduced a hybrid energy harvesting system that captures wave and solar energy from the ocean using triboelectric nanogenerators and photovoltaic cells.”

• Also stated in: § 4.4. Hybridized Technologies for Hydrogen Production · hedged

  “They estimated the energy harvesting capabilities based on actual ocean variations.”

• cites [254] sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Four energy balls connected in series charged the fiber-supercapacitors to 1.3 V and then discharged the electrical energy to split seawater.

“After four energy balls in series charged the F-SCs to 1.3 V, they discharged the electrical energy to split seawater (Figure 10p).”

• cites [254] sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

The S-TENG output performance varies with the shadow ratio caused by the Al ball, with optimal performance at a 50% half-shadow condition.

“The S-TENG output performance varies with the shadow ratio caused by the Al ball, with optimal performance at a 50% half-shadow condition, providing the maximum surface area for electron generation and collection.”

• cites [254] sourcePartly supported

  In Results, ‘Characteristics of the shadow-effect’ (page unavailable), the paper reports that the Au/n-Si system performed best at a 50% shadow-area ratio and that half-shadowing optimized the area for electron generation and collection. The ratio was tested using black paper, not an aluminum ball. ‘Application of the energy ball’ identifies an aluminum ball as the S-TENG’s shadow-casting object, but does not establish that 50% shadowing by that ball gives optimal S-TENG output. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Challenges in seawater electrolysis for H2 production include the lack of high-performance electrocatalysts, the low conductivity of seawater, and the need to enhance electrolysis efficiency.

“Additionally, challenges in seawater electrolysis for H 2 production include the lack of high-performance electrocatalysts, the low conductivity of seawater, and the need to enhance electrolysis efficiency.[255][256][257]”

• cites [255] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [256] sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (pp. 2–3) identifies better electrocatalysts and improved efficiency as needs for anion exchange membrane water electrolysis. The Summary and Outlook (p. 12) identifies low ionic conductivity of the membrane as a challenge. These passages do not establish the claimed challenges specifically for seawater electrolysis or say that seawater itself has low conductivity (searched: seawater, seawater electrolysis). (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [257] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Under dark conditions the S-TENG generates a typical tribo-induced AC signal of 0.01 μA cm−2, while under an illumination intensity of 90 mW cm−2 it generates a significantly increased DC signal of 34 μA cm−2.

“Under dark conditions, the S-TENG generates a typical tribo-induced AC signal of 0.01 μA cm -2 , while under an illumination intensity of 90 mW cm -2 , a significantly increased DC signal of 34 μA cm -2 is generated.”

• cites [254] sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

TENG operation is grounded in the coupling effect of contact electrification and electrostatic induction.

“The Triboelectric Nanogenerator (TENG) was introduced to the community in 2012, [59] with its operation grounded in the coupling effect of contact electrification (triboelectrification) and electrostatic induction.[59][60][61][62][63]”

• cites [59][60][61][62][63]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

H2 has exceptional combustion efficiency, nontoxic properties, environmentally benign combustion by-products (H2O), and renewable and storable characteristics.

“This is attributed to its high gravimetric energy density (143 MJ kg -1 ), exceptional combustion efficiency, nontoxic properties, environmentally benign combustion by-products (H 2 O), and renewable and storable characteristics.[21][22][23]”

• cites [21][22][23]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

TENGs can be categorized into four fundamental working modes: vertical contact-separation, lateral-sliding, single-electrode, and freestanding triboelectric-layer.

“The TENGs can be categorized into four fundamental working modes: [64,71] 1) vertical contact-separation mode, [72][73][74][75][76][77][78] 2) lateral-sliding mode, [79][80][81][82][83] 3) single-electrode mode, [84][85][86][87][88] and 4) freestanding triboelectric-layer mode [89,90]”

• cites [64] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [71] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

H2 has a high gravimetric energy density of 143 MJ kg-1.

“This is attributed to its high gravimetric energy density (143 MJ kg -1 ), exceptional combustion efficiency, nontoxic properties, environmentally benign combustion by-products (H 2 O), and renewable and storable characteristics.[21][22][23]”

• cites [21][22][23]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Conventional H2 production processes such as steam reforming of natural gas contribute significantly to CO and CO2 emissions, thus depleting natural resources.

“Furthermore, conventional H 2 production processes, such as steam reforming of natural gas, contribute significantly to carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions, thus depleting natural resources.[24][25][26][27]”

• cites [24][25][26][27]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Villari effect is the converse of the magnetostrictive effect and has been identified in rigid metals and metal alloys including Fe1-xCox, TbxDy1-xFe2 (Terfenol-D), and GaxFe1-x (Galfenol).

“This phenomenon, commonly known as the Villari effect, stands as the converse of the magnetostrictive effect and has been identified in a variety of rigid metals and metal alloys, including Fe 1-x Co x , [141] Tb x Dy 1-x Fe 2 (Terfenol-D), [142] and Ga x Fe 1-x (Galfenol).[143]”

• cites [141] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [142] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [143] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Theoretical global potential for various types of ocean energy is estimated at 337 GW, with global marine energy potential at 32 TW.

“Theoretical global potential for various types of ocean energy is estimated at 337 GW, with the global marine energy potential at 32 TW.”

• cites [11][12][13]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Charge recombination affects device performance, especially open-circuit voltage (Voc), and is enhanced through structural modification by controlling films and lattice strain.

“Charge recombination (Figure 4d), affecting device performance, especially open-circuit voltage (V oc ), is enhanced through structural modification by controlling films and lattice strain.[171][172][173][174][175][176]”

• cites [171][172][173][174][175][176]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Tunable bandgaps ranging from 1.48 to 2.2 eV enable photovoltaic devices to achieve open-circuit voltages exceeding 1.0 V and high current density.

“Furthermore, tunable bandgaps ranging from 1.48 to 2.2 eV enable photovoltaic devices to achieve open-circuit voltages exceeding 1.0 V and high current density.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Device stability is a critical factor for utilizing solar cells as a power source.

“Device stability is a critical factor for utilizing solar cells as a power source.[179][180][181][182]”

• cites [179][180][181][182]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Freestanding mode is unaffected by electrostatic shielding and minimizes friction between triboelectric layers, resulting in high device mechanical durability and energy conversion efficiency.

“In contrast to the single-electrode mode, the freestanding mode is unaffected by the electrostatic shielding effect and minimizes friction between the triboelectric layers, resulting in high device mechanical durability and energy conversion efficiency.[92,138]”

• cites [92] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [138] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Commercial solar cells are silicon-based devices with high module efficiency (15-22%) and long lifespan, widely utilized in various fields.

“Commercial solar cells are silicon-based devices with high module efficiency (15-22%) and long lifespan, widely utilized in various fields such as residential and commercial solar power systems, solar energy plants, solar panel roads, etc. [197]”

• cites [197] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Electrical energy generated from ocean energy sources is projected to reach 885 TWh.

“The electrical energy generated from ocean energy sources is projected to reach 885 TWh”

• cites [11][12][13]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Magnetoelasticity was initially observed by Emilio Villari in 1865.

“Magnetoelasticity was initially observed by the Italian experimental physicist Emilio Villari in 1865.[140]”

• cites [140] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The wide ocean is rich in various forms of renewable energy in water waves, wind, and solar radiation.

“The wide ocean is rich in various forms of renewable energy in water waves, wind, and solar radiation, offering a substantial contribution to the global energy landscape.[16][17][18]”

• cites [16][17][18]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

At a rotating speed of 120 rpm, the O2 production rate for the HRWF-TENG system is 2.79 μL min-1, while the calculated H2 production rate is 5.58 μL min-1.

“At a rotating speed of 120 rpm, the O 2 production rate for the HRWF-TENG system is 2.79 μL min -1 , while the calculated H 2 production rate is 5.58 μL min -1 (Figure 6i).”

• cites [232] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Seawater electrolysis has the advantage of providing pure drinking water and purifying contaminated seawater, contributing to environmental sustainability.

“Besides directly producing clean energy in coastal areas and islands, seawater electrolysis has the advantage of providing pure drinking water and purifying contaminated seawater, contributing to environmental sustainability.[219][220][221]”

• cites [219][220][221]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

At a maximum speed of 140 rpm, the O2 production rate is 6.16 μL min-1, and the calculated H2 production rate is 12.32 μL min-1.

“The H 2 and O 2 generation rates vary with rotation speeds, reaching a maximum speed of 140 rpm, where the O 2 production rate is 6.16 μL min -1 , and the calculated H 2 production rate is 12.32 μL min -1 (Figure 6j).”

• cites [232] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Electrochemical water-splitting is a regenerative life-supporting system and represents one of the most efficient strategies for the carbon-free production of green H2 fuel.

“Electrochemical water-splitting is a regenerative life-supporting system and represents one of the most efficient strategies for the carbon-free production of green H 2 fuel.[205][206][207]”

• cites [205][206][207]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

TENGs are fabricated with lightweight dielectric materials and operate based on four fundamental working modes, making them suitable for harnessing ocean wave energy with floating devices on the water surface.

“TENGs are fabricated with lightweight dielectric materials and operate based on four fundamental working modes, making them suitable for harnessing ocean wave energy with floating devices on the water surface, allowing for diverse forms of development.”

May combine two claims.

At discharge voltages exceeding 3.5 V, the SCC-TENG produced H2 fuel at a rate of 818.4 μL m-2 d-1 with a Faraday efficiency of 69.1% and a conversion efficiency of 44.3%.

“At discharge voltages exceeding 3.5 V, it exhibited a more apparent and continuous precipitation time, producing H 2 fuel at a rate of 818.4 μL m -2 d -1 with a Faraday efficiency of 69.1% and a conversion efficiency of 44.3% (Figure 6n).”

• cites [233] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Networking of TENG units enhances power output, enabling efficient H2 fuel production.

“Additionally, the networking of TENG units enhances power output, enabling efficient H 2 fuel production.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The multilayered z-folded TENG maximizes the contact area.

“The multilayered z-folded TENG maximizes the contact area”

• cites [229] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Electrolysis process is a promising approach for producing green H2 fuel, known for its efficiency and economic viability.

“The electrolysis process is a promising approach for producing green H 2 fuel, known for its efficiency and economic viability.[202][203][204]”

• cites [202][203][204]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The disk-shaped TENG generated electricity directly from water motion, eliminating the need for an external power source to drive the water-splitting system.

“The disk-shaped TENG generated electricity directly from water motion, eliminating the need for an external power source to drive the water-splitting system (Figure 6b).”

• cites [231] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Electrochemical water-splitting requires a theoretical voltage of 1.23 V according to thermodynamics.

“While electrochemical water-splitting requires a theoretical voltage of 1.23 V according to thermodynamics, practical water decomposition thresholds demand higher voltages to overcome activation barriers caused by overpotential.[209,210]”

• cites [209] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [210] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Seawater electrolysis holds the potential for massive green H2 production, distinct from pure water electrolysis, due to the abundant and infinite supply of seawater electrolytes.

“Seawater constitutes 96.5% of Earth's water sources; seawater electrolysis holds the potential for massive green H 2 production, [216][217][218] distinct from pure water electrolysis, due to the abundant and infinite supply of seawater electrolytes.”

• cites [216][217][218]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

TENGs are often fabricated with dielectric films of relatively lightweight materials, making them well-suited for harnessing wave energy on the ocean surface.

“TENGs are often fabricated with dielectric films of relatively lightweight materials, making them well-suited for harnessing wave energy on the ocean surface.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The process involves repetitive contact cycle or rubbing between two dielectric materials, resulting in AC output.

“This process involves the repetitive contact cycle or rubbing between two dielectric materials, resulting in AC output.[224][225][226]”

• cites [224][225][226]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Developing solar cell systems on water surfaces or underwater has been proposed as a solution to land scarcity.

“Developing solar cell systems on water surfaces or underwater has been proposed as a solution to this issue.[198][199][200][201]”

• cites [198][199][200][201]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Seawater constitutes 96.5% of Earth's water sources.

“Seawater constitutes 96.5% of Earth's water sources; seawater electrolysis holds the potential for massive green H 2 production, [216][217][218] distinct from pure water electrolysis, due to the abundant and infinite supply of seawater electrolytes.”

• cites [216][217][218]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

These challenges include the lack of high-performance electrocatalysts for the OER and the HER, hindered by high energy barriers, low electrolysis efficiency, and the low conductivity of seawater with limited surface active sites.

“These challenges include the lack of high-performance electrocatalysts for the OER and the HER, hindered by high energy barriers, low electrolysis efficiency, and the low conductivity of seawater with limited surface active sites.”

May combine two claims.

The system comprises three primary components: a spring-assisted TENG for converting wave energy to electricity, a power management circuit consisting of bridge rectifiers and a supercapacitor, and a two-electrode electrochemical cell responsible for CO2 RR and the OER.

“The system comprises three primary components: 1) a springassisted TENG for converting wave energy to electricity, 2) a power management circuit consisting of bridge rectifiers and a supercapacitor, and 3) a two-electrode electrochemical cell responsible for CO 2 RR and the OER (Figure 5k).”

• cites [229] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The device output voltage meets the basic requirements as a self-powered electrolysis power source, exceeding the onset potential of the electrochemical cell for H2 production.

“Specifically, the device output voltage meets the basic requirements as a self-powered electrolysis power source, exceeding the onset potential of the electrochemical cell for H 2 production.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Challenges in high-performance energy harvesting devices include low current values and degradation of components due to friction.

“Additionally, challenges in high-performance energy harvesting devices include low current values and degradation of components due to friction.”

May combine two claims.

The TENG charges the capacitor up to 3.9 V for electrochemical power generation, yielding formic acid production at a rate of 0.067 μmol per 0.57 mg cm-2.

“Therefore, the TENG charges the capacitor up to 3.9 V for electrochemical power generation, yielding formic acid production at a rate of 0.067 μmol per 0.57 mg cm -2 , respectively (Figure 5l).”

• cites [230] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Under ocean wave conditions, MSLT exhibited an output performance with a Voc of 80 V and a short-circuit current (Isc) of 14 μA.

“Under ocean wave conditions, MSLT exhibited an output performance with a V oc of 80 V and a short-circuit current (I sc ) of 14 μA.”

• cites [228] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The charged capacitor facilitated electrolysis, resulting in seawater-splitting with the production of H2 bubbles on the surface of the Ni foam.

“The charged capacitor facilitated electrolysis, resulting in seawater-splitting with the production of H 2 bubbles on the surface of the Ni foam (Figure 5i).”

• cites [228] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

An assembled solar seawater electrolysis system achieved a faradaic efficiency of 99.5 ± 3.7%, generating O2 on the anode and H2 on the cathode.

“An assembled solar seawater electrolysis system achieved a faradaic efficiency of 99.5 ± 3.7%, generating O 2 on the anode and H 2 on the cathode.”

• cites [239] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Kim et al. reported a wireless solar-powered water-splitting device that is highly efficient and durable for driving sustainable solar fuel production.

“Kim et al. [249] reported a wireless solar-powered water-splitting device that is highly efficient and durable for driving sustain-able solar fuel production (Figure 9a).”

• cites [249] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The output performance of the MEG energy harvesting system increases with the rotating speed and exhibits a dependence on the device's number.

“The output performance increases with the rotating speed and exhibits a dependence on the device's number, demonstrating an increase in output performance through output matching.”

• cites [235] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Challenges persist in the development of water-floating systems, including the difficulty of achieving water floating with hard substrates, limitations of floating platforms, and the low STH efficiency of large-scale systems.

“However, challenges persist in the development of water-floating systems, including the difficulty of achieving water floating with hard substrates, limitations of floating platforms, and the low STH efficiency of large-scale systems.”

May combine two claims.

Pan et al. developed a floating electrolysis seawater device that can float on the water surface and is powered by monolithic perovskite/crystalline silicon tandem solar cells.

“Pan et al. [239] have developed a floating electrolysis seawater device that can float on the water surface and is powered by monolithic perovskite/crystalline silicon tandem solar cells.”

• cites [239] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Designing large-scale systems for effective conversion to green H2 fuel remains an ongoing challenge.

“Nevertheless, designing large-scale systems for effective conversion to green H 2 fuel remains an ongoing challenge.”

May combine two claims.

The Co-Ci/H, 3% Mo:BiVO4 photoanode showed excellent stability with no change in photocurrent values over 12 h, and under 1 sun illumination, a faradaic efficiency (FE) of 100% was calculated for H2 and O2 generation.

“The Co-Ci/H, 3% Mo:BiVO 4 photoanode showed excellent stability with no change in photocurrent values over 12 h, and under 1 sun illumination, a faradaic efficiency (FE) of 100% was calculated for H 2 and O 2 generation (Figure 9c).”

• cites [249] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Initially charged up to 9 V, the discharged capacitor maintains ≈6 s at 1.76 V, resulting in the generation of H2 and O2 bubbles at the cathode and anode.

“Initially charged up to 9 V, the discharged capacitor maintains ≈6 s at 1.76 V, resulting in the dramatic generation of H 2 and O 2 bubbles at the cathode and anode (Figure 7i).”

• cites [235] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In the RD-TENG-driven system, the AC output is transformed and rectified into a modified DC output that provides sufficient external bias to drive water splitting at the hematite photoanode, accelerating the rate of O2 evolution.

“In this system (Figure 10a), the AC output of the RD-TENG is transformed and rectified into a modified DC output, providing sufficient external bias to drive the water-splitting process based on the hematite photoanode, accelerating the rate of O 2 evolution.”

• cites [252] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

When the photoanode was placed on top, the efficiency and Jsc of the solar cell dropped to 10.2% and 14.0 mA cm-2, respectively, except for Voc.

“However, when the photoanode was placed on top, the efficiency and J sc of the solar cell dropped to 10.2% and 14.0 mA cm -2 , respectively, except for V oc (Figure 9d).”

• cites [249] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The actual stand-alone device showed a stable photocurrent of 3.5 mA cm-2 measured in unassisted solar water-splitting for a continuous 12 h, and the STH efficiency of 3.0% was estimated from the amount of gas evolution.

“The actual stand-alone device showed a stable photocurrent of 3.5 mA cm -2 measured in unassisted solar water-splitting for a continuous 12 h (Figure 9e), and the STH efficiency of 3.0% was estimated from the amount of gas evolution (Figure 9f).”

• cites [249] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The PSC adopts a structure of FTO glass/c-TiO2/m-TiO2/CH3NH3PbI3/carbon and achieves a solar-to-electric (STE) efficiency of 13.0% (Jsc = 20.5 mA cm-2, Voc = 0.98 V, FF = 0.64) under AM 1.5G solar illumination.

“The PSC adopts a structure of FTO glass/c-TiO 2 /m-TiO 2 /CH 3 NH 3 PbI 3 /carbon and achieves a remarkable solar-toelectric (STE) efficiency of 13.0% (J sc = 20.5 mA cm -2 , V oc = 0.98 V, and FF = 0.64) under AM 1.5G solar illumination, with protection provided by a surlyn film encapsulation.”

• cites [240] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The 64-unit solar cell module exhibited homogeneous characteristics, with efficiency between 9.8% and 10.3%.

“The 64-unit solar cell module exhibited homogeneous characteristics, with efficiency between 9.8% and 10.3% (Figure 9p).”

• cites [251] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Underwater solar cells face issues such as low water stability, low absorbance underwater, and technical limitations.

“Underwater solar cells have been considered and developed to cover the limited land installation area of conventional solar cells, [200,201,246] but they face issues such as low water stability, low absorbance underwater, and technical limitations.[247,248]”

• cites [247] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [248] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The PSC exhibited an efficiency of 15.4%, a Voc of 1.07 V, a Jsc of 21.4 mA cm-2, and a FF of 67.5%.

“The PSC exhibited an efficiency of 15.4%, a V oc of 1.07 V, a J sc of 21.4 mA cm -2 , and a FF of 67.5%.”

• cites [249] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Two PSCs connected in series enhance the input potential for water-splitting, resulting in a Voc of 1.86 V and a high STE efficiency of 10.61%.

“Two PSCs are connected in series to enhance the input potential for water-splitting, resulting in a V oc of 1.86 V and a high STE efficiency of 10.61%.”

• cites [240] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The CoP nanorods require an overpotential of 1.74 V to attain a current density of 10 mA cm-2, and after 5 h they maintain ≈98% of the initial current.

“The overpotential required for the CoP nanorods to attain a current density of 10 mA cm -2 is 1.74 V, and even after 5 h, they maintain ≈98% of the initial current, demonstrating robust stability as anode for the OER and cathode for the HER.”

• cites [240] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The H2 evolution rate of the RD-TENG-driven system is 5.56 μL min−1 at a rotation speed of 140 rpm, and increases to 6.67 μL min−1 when combined with solar energy.

“The rate of H 2 evolution is 5.56 μL min -1 at a rotation speed of 140 rpm, and when combined with solar energy, the light further accelerates water decomposition, resulting in a rate of 6.67 μL min -1 (Figure 10f).”

• cites [252] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The integration of solar cells and electrochemical cells into one device has reduced contact resistance, leading to improved energy conversion efficiency.

“The integration of these two functions into one device has reduced contact resistance, leading to improved energy conversion efficiency.”

May combine two claims.

Becker et al. presented a stand-alone integrated solar water-splitting module with an active area of 64 cm2, demonstrating long-term stable operation.

“Becker et al. [251] presented a stand-alone integrated solar water-splitting module with an active area of 64 cm 2 , demonstrating long-term stable operation (Figure 9n).”

• cites [251] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells exhibited a PCE of 27.42% (Jsc = 19.29 mA cm-2, Voc = 1.86 V, FF = 76.52%) with long-term stability over 120 h of operation under standard AM 1.5 G daylight.

“These tandem solar cells exhibited a PCE of 27.42% (short-circuit current (J sc ) = 19.29 mA cm -2 , V oc = 1.86 V, and fill factor (FF) = 76.52%) with long-term stability over 120 h of operation under standard AM 1.5 G daylight.”

• cites [239] sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The GUA-TENG-powered all-time system reaches a maximum H2 generation rate of 7.67 μL min−1 at 140 rpm, and at speeds exceeding 120 rpm it generates the same amount of H2 regardless of the presence of solar energy.

“The maximum H 2 generation rate is 7.67 μL min -1 at 140 rpm; however, at speeds exceeding 120 rpm, the system generates the same amount of H 2 regardless of the presence of solar energy (Figure 10k).”

• cites [253]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Devices such as TENGs or MEGs with AC output may experience a reduction in performance due to output mismatch.

“However, devices such as TENG or MEG with AC output may experience a reduction in performance due to output mismatch.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Results presented in previous studies have demonstrated high-performance H2 production rates and underscored the feasibility of modulus prototypes.

“The results presented in previous studies have demonstrated high-performance H 2 production rates and underscored the feasibility of modulus prototypes.”

May combine two claims.

Experimental results indicate that the reviewed ocean energy harvesting technologies significantly increase H2 production rate, bringing major breakthroughs to the renewable energy sector.

“Experimental results indicate that these technologies significantly increase H 2 production rate, bringing major breakthroughs to the renewable energy sector.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The marine solar cell integrated water-splitting system requires the development of device fabrication technologies together with an understanding of the working mechanism of single-unit devices, which is essential for realizing self-powered wireless devices.

“Furthermore, the marine solar cell integrated watersplitting system requires the development of device fabrication technologies accompanied by an understanding of the working mechanism of single-unit devices, which is essential for realizing self-powered wireless devices.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Meeting the energy requirements for water-splitting as a power source demands a higher working potential than the onset voltage to drive electrochemical reactions and continuous charge transfer for regular H2 fuel production.

“Therefore, meeting the energy requirements for water-splitting as a power source demands a higher working potential than the onset voltage to drive electrochemical reactions and continuous charge transfer for regular H 2 fuel production.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The hybrid systems reviewed serve as examples of hybridization by additionally harvesting solar energy, which is consistently available during ocean energy harvesting.

“In this context, the systems we introduced serve as excellent examples of hybridization by additionally harvesting solar energy, which is consistently available during ocean energy harvesting.”