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Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design
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The 1998 cognitive load theory model partitioned working memory demands of instructional settings into intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous cognitive load, and germane load.
“the 1998 model for the remainder of this paper, partitioned the working memory demands of instructional settings into three load types, intrinsic cognitive load (ICL), extraneous cognitive load (ECL), and germane load (GCL; Sweller et al., 1998).”
From Understanding Cognitive Load in Digital and Online Learning: a New Perspective on Extraneous Cognitive Load (2022) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Extraneous load can be generated by inefficient instructional procedures and by unnecessary actions, gaze patterns, or mental operations learners must perform while working with learning materials.
“This type of load can be generated by inefficient instructional procedures such as unguided problem-solving, as well as unnecessary actions, gaze patterns, or mental operations that learners must perform while working with learning materials (Sweller et al., 1998).”
From Understanding Cognitive Load in Digital and Online Learning: a New Perspective on Extraneous Cognitive Load (2022) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
One of the main guidelines of cognitive load theory is that extraneous cognitive load should be reduced to leave sufficient cognitive resources for actual learning to take place.
“One of the main guidelines of the theory is that extraneous cognitive load should be reduced to leave sufficient cognitive resources for the actual learning to take place.”
From Understanding Cognitive Load in Digital and Online Learning: a New Perspective on Extraneous Cognitive Load (2022) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Intrinsic load cannot be lowered by instructional design but can vary according to the learner's level of prior knowledge.
“Although intrinsic load cannot be lowered by means of instructional design, it can vary according to the learner ' s level of prior knowledge such that for the same learning task a novice will experience higher intrinsic load compared to an expert (Kalyuga, 2005; Sweller et al., 1998).”
From Understanding Cognitive Load in Digital and Online Learning: a New Perspective on Extraneous Cognitive Load (2022) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Measurements of EDA and derived metrics have been successfully applied, including user experience evaluation tools, detecting office workload, and driver-related tasks.
“Measurements of EDA and derived metrics have been successfully applied, including, e.g., user experience evaluation tools [76], detecting office workload [216] and driver-related tasks [202,217,224].”
From A Survey on Measuring Cognitive Workload in Human-Computer Interaction (2023) · cites this paper as [216]
Intrinsic load is not merely a function of qualities of the subject matter but also of the prior knowledge a learner brings to the task.
“However, intrinsic load is not merely a function of qualities of the subject matter but also of the prior knowledge a learner brings to the task (Bannert 2002; Sweller et al. 1998).”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Sweller et al. 1998
Intrinsic load cannot be changed by instructional treatments.
“The second premise concerning intrinsic cognitive load is that it cannot be changed by instructional treatments.”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Sweller et al. 1998
Following dictionary definitions of load as something experienced and effort as something exerted, intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load can be labelled cognitive load, while germane cognitive load can be labelled cognitive effort.
“Following this approach, one might say that intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load concern cognitive activities that must unavoidably be performed, so they fall under cognitive load; germane cognitive load is the space that is left over that the learner can decide how to use, so this can be labelled as cognitive effort.”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Sweller et al. 1998
An important premise of cognitive load theory is that the different types of cognitive load can be added.
“An important premise of cognitive load theory is that the different types of cognitive load can be added.”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Sweller et al. 1998
Cognitive load theory is used in presenting guidelines for instructional design.
“Cognitive load theory is used in presenting guidelines for instructional design.”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Sweller et al. (1998)
L'automatisation apparaît après la pratique intensive.
“L'automatisation apparaît après la pratique intensive (Sweller, van Merrienboer et Paas, 1998).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Sweller, van Merrienboer et Paas, 1998
Experienced learners rely on pre-existing schemas, which allow them to integrate new information more efficiently, reducing the number of interacting elements that must be processed simultaneously.
“Experienced learners rely on pre-existing schemas, which allow them to integrate new information more efficiently, reducing the number of interacting elements (i.e., “element interactivity” discussed in details below) that must be processed simultaneously (Kalyuga, 2007a, 2007b; Sweller et al., 1998)”
From Rethinking pre-training: cognitive load implications for learners with varying prior knowledge (2025) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Released resources from externalisations could serve a deeper elaboration of processed information, which in turn could cause stronger memory representations.
“One might consider that such released resources which come along with externalisations (Kirsh, 2010) could serve a deeper elaboration of the processed information (Sweller et al., 1998). In return, such a deeper elaboration could cause stronger memory representations (Craik & Lockhart, 1972).”
From Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory (2021) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
The limitation in working memory is a critical factor when designing instruction.
“The limitation in working memory is considered a critical factor when designing instruction (34,41,42).”
From Applying learning theories and instructional design models for effective instruction (2016) · cites this paper as [42]
Instruction becomes inadequate because it imposes high extraneous cognitive load irrelevant for learning.
“Otherwise, instruction becomes inadequate because it imposes high extraneous cognitive load irrelevant for learning (42).”
From Applying learning theories and instructional design models for effective instruction (2016) · cites this paper as [42]
It is impossible to use highly complex learning tasks from the start of a course or training program because this would yield excessive cognitive load for learners, with negative effects on learning, performance, and motivation.
“It is clearly impossible to use highly complex learning tasks from the start of a course or training program because this would yield excessive cognitive load for the learners, with negative effects on learning, performance, and motivation (Sweller, van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998).”
From Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning (2003) · cites this paper as Sweller, van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998
Studying worked-out examples facilitates schema construction and transfer performance more than actually solving the equivalent problems does.
“Indeed, many experiments supported the counterintuitive prediction that studying worked-out examples facilitates schema construction and transfer performance more than actually solving the equivalent problems does (van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2002; also see Sweller et al., 1998, for an overview).”
From Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning (2003) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Goal-free tasks eliminate the need for means-ends search and so decrease extraneous cognitive load.
“Goal-free tasks present the learner with a highly aspecific goal, which eliminates the need for means-ends search and so decreases extraneous cognitive load (Paas, Camp, & Rikers, 2001; also see Sweller et al., 1998, for an overview).”
From Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning (2003) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Germane load is cognitive load directly associated with schema construction, which is essential for long-term retention.
“Finally, germane load can be defined as cognitive load that is directly associated with schema construction, a process that is essential for long-term retention (Sweller et al., 1998).”
From Does difficulty moderate learning? A comparative analysis of the desirable difficulties framework and cognitive load theory (2025) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Germane load can be induced by encouraging conscious cognitive processing closely related to schema construction.
“Germane load can be induced by encouraging a learner to engage in conscious cognitive processing which is closely related to schema construction (Sweller, 2010; Sweller et al., 1998).”
From Does difficulty moderate learning? A comparative analysis of the desirable difficulties framework and cognitive load theory (2025) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Cognitive Load Theory aims to explain the link between processing load (cognitive load) induced by learning tasks and students' ability to manage novel information to subsequently build knowledge in the form of long-term memory.
“More specifically, CLT aims to explain the link between the processing load (i.e., cognitive load) induced by learning tasks and students’ ability to manage novel information to subsequently build knowledge in the form of long-term memory (Sweller, 1988; Sweller et al., 1998).”
From Does difficulty moderate learning? A comparative analysis of the desirable difficulties framework and cognitive load theory (2025) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Cognitive Load Theory distinguishes between three different types of cognitive load.
“Beyond these foundational assumptions, while cognitive load can generally be defined as the number of working memory resources employed to perform a task, CLT distinguishes between three different types (Sweller et al., 1998, 2019) each of which are reviewed below.”
From Does difficulty moderate learning? A comparative analysis of the desirable difficulties framework and cognitive load theory (2025) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Empirical evidence for CLT originates largely from studies supporting various effects set forward by the theory.
“Empirical evidence for CLT originates largely from studies that provide support for various effects set forward by the theory (Sweller et al., 1998), some of which will be discussed here.”
From Does difficulty moderate learning? A comparative analysis of the desirable difficulties framework and cognitive load theory (2025) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
MEA is incompatible with learning because it is working memory intensive and does not lead to schema construction.
“While MEA could solve the problem, it is incompatible with learning because it is working memory intensive and does not lead to schema construction (Sweller, 1988; Sweller et al., 1998).”
From Does difficulty moderate learning? A comparative analysis of the desirable difficulties framework and cognitive load theory (2025) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Cognitive load theory uses aspects of human cognitive architecture and of the structure of information to provide instructional designs that facilitate understanding, learning and problem solving.
“It uses some aspects of human cognitive architecture and of the structure of information to provide instructional designs that facilitate understanding, learning and problem solving.”
From Assimilating complex information (2002) · cites this paper as Sweller, van Merrienboer & Paas, 1998
Germane cognitive load is related to the cognitive processing which is consciously directed toward the construction of schemas.
“Germane cognitive load is related to the cognitive processing which is consciously directed toward the construction of schemas”
From Assimilating complex information (2002) · cites this paper as Sweller, van Merrienboer and Paas, 1998
Learning benefits if the learner's attention is directed toward processes relevant to the construction of schemas, even if the consequence is an increase in the total cognitive load imposed on working memory during learning.
“Learning benefits if the learner's attention is directed toward processes relevant to the construction of schemas, even if the consequence of achieving this effect is an increase in the total cognitive load imposed on working memory during learning”
From Assimilating complex information (2002) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Tasks that increase germane cognitive load ensure that the learner's attention has been appropriately engaged and have been shown to benefit subsequent performance on similar and transfer problems.
“the tasks ensure that the learner's attention has been appropriately engaged and have been shown to benefit subsequent performance on similar and transfer problems”
From Assimilating complex information (2002) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Even when worked examples are interspersed with practice, there is no way to ensure that learners are dedicating appropriate attentional resources to study the worked example before solving the accompanying problem.
“there is no way”
From Assimilating complex information (2002) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Cognitive load theory can be used to design instruction intended to reduce extraneous cognitive load and facilitate learning through more rapid and effective schema construction.
“This combination of cognitive architecture and information structures constitutes the core of cognitive load theory and can be used to design instruction intended to reduce extraneous cognitive load and facilitate learning through more rapid and effective schema construction (see Sweller, 1999; Sweller, van Merrienboer & Paas, 1998).”
From Assimilating complex information (2002) · cites this paper as Sweller, van Merrienboer & Paas, 1998
Intrinsic cognitive load of information is unalterable because this type of cognitive load reflects the internal structure of the material itself, that is, the number of information elements and the degree of interaction between them.
“It has been previously stated that intrinsic cognitive load of information is unalterable (Sweller and Chandler, 1994; Sweller, van Merrienboer and Paas, 1998) because this type of cognitive load reflects the internal structure of the material itself, that is, the number of information elements and the degree of interaction between them.”
From Assimilating complex information (2002) · cites this paper as Sweller, van Merrienboer and Paas, 1998
A popular workaround to the challenge of prompting is 'prompt libraries' with detailed, task-specific prompts.
“A popular workaround to the challenge of prompting is 'prompt libraries' with detailed, task-specific prompts (see[176] for an overview).”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [176]
Cognitive load can be categorized into three types: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane.
“Cognitive load can be categorized into three types: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane [18].”
From Teaching a single manual therapy technique at a time reduces cognitive load in physiotherapy students: a randomized controlled educational study (2025) · cites this paper as [18]
Germane load reflects the effort that contributes to the construction of schemas.
“germane load, which “reflects the effort that contributes to the construction of schemas” (Sweller et al., 1998, p. 259).”
From Development and Validation of Two Instruments Measuring Intrinsic, Extraneous, and Germane Cognitive Load (2017) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Cognitive Load Theory differentiated three independent sources of memory load: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load.
“For a long time, CLT differentiated three independent sources of memory load, namely ICL, ECL, and GCL (e.g., Sweller et al., 1998).”
From Development and Validation of Two Instruments Measuring Intrinsic, Extraneous, and Germane Cognitive Load (2017) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Long-term memory is virtually unlimited.
“The second assumption of CLT is that long-term memory is virtually unlimited (Sweller et al., 1998)”
From Development and Validation of Two Instruments Measuring Intrinsic, Extraneous, and Germane Cognitive Load (2017) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Cognitive load theory recommends optimizing intrinsic load by matching materials to prior knowledge, minimizing extraneous load, and challenging learners to use germane processes or resources.
“Cognitive load theory states that intrinsic cognitive load should be optimized in instructional design by selecting materials that match the learner's prior knowledge or proficiency, while extraneous cognitive load should be minimized, and learners should be challenged to engage in processes that evoke germane cognitive load (in the old conceptualization of cognitive load theory) or the use of (in”
From Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load (2014) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
If intrinsic, extraneous, and germane load were independent and additive, their correlations would be around zero.
“If intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load were indeed independent and additive types of cognitive load as Sweller et al. (1998) suggest, then one would expect correlations between these types of cognitive load to be (around) zero.”
From Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load (2014) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Intrinsic cognitive load is influenced by individual differences in prior knowledge.
“and that intrinsic cognitive load is affected by individual differences in prior knowledge (Sweller, 2010;Sweller et al., 2011Sweller et al., , 1998)).”
From Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load (2014) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
When instructional material is poorly constructed, extraneous load is generated because the learner is diverted away from schema acquisition and uses up precious working memory resources by trying to deal with a suboptimal learning environment.
“When instructional material is poorly constructed, extraneous load is generated because the learner is diverted away from schema acquisition and uses up precious WM resources by trying to deal with a suboptimal learning environment (Sweller et al. 1998).”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as Sweller et al. 1998
Cognitive load theory has generated over the last two decades a unique variety of useful and effective instructional designs and procedures.
“the theory has generated over the last two decades a unique variety of useful and effective instructional designs and procedures (for overviews, see Sweller et al. 1998;Van Merriënboer and Sweller 2005).”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as Sweller et al. 1998
Cognitive load theory identifies three categories of cognitive load: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane.
“CLT identifies three categories of cognitive load: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane (Paas et al. 2003b;Sweller et al. 1998).”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as Sweller et al. 1998
Principal component analysis (PCA) confirmed the assumed three-components model consisting of the three cognitive load types proposed in cognitive load theory (CLT).
“In more detail, the PCA confirmed the assumed three-components model consisting of the three types proposed in CLT (Sweller et al., 1998).”
From Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Questionnaire to Measure Different Types of Cognitive Load (2023) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Intrinsic cognitive load is influenced by students' level of expertise: higher prior knowledge reduces intrinsic load because schemas can be handled in working memory as single information elements.
“Intrinsic load is also influenced by students' level of expertise: When students gain knowledge in a domain, they construct cognitive schemas by combining information elements and those schemas can be handled in working memory as single information elements.Therefore, the same animations impose less intrinsic load for students with higher levels of prior knowledge than for students with lower”
From An expertise reversal effect of segmentation in learning from animated worked-out examples (2011) · cites this paper as Sweller et al., 1998
Cognitive Load Theory distinguishes three additive types of cognitive load imposed on working memory: extraneous, germane, and intrinsic.
“Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, Van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998;Van Merriënboer & Sweller, 2005) distinguishes between three additive types of cognitive load imposed on working memory by maintaining and processing information: Extraneous (i.e., ineffective) and germane (i.e., effective) cognitive load imposed by the design of instructional materials, and intrinsic cognitive load, imposed by the”
From An expertise reversal effect of segmentation in learning from animated worked-out examples (2011) · cites this paper as Sweller, Van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998
Mental processing is limited by the capacity of working memory.
“According to CLT, mental processing is limited by the capacity of working memory (De Jong 2010;Sweller et al. 1998).”
From Measuring physician cognitive load: validity evidence for a physiologic and a psychometric tool (2017) · cites this paper as Sweller et al. 1998
With the development of domain-specific expertise, those with more experience are thought to be able to chunk related concepts together in elaborated schemas, thus maximizing the efficiency of their working memory.
“With the development of domain-specific expertise, those with more experience are thought to be able to chunk related concepts together in elaborated schemas, thus maximizing the efficiency of their working memory (Gegenfurtner et al. 2011;Sweller et al. 1998).”
From Measuring physician cognitive load: validity evidence for a physiologic and a psychometric tool (2017) · cites this paper as Sweller et al. 1998
Cognitive load theory emphasizes the limited cognitive capacity of the learner as an important determinant for effective use of instructional methods.
“CLT emphasizes the limited cognitive capacity of the learner as an important determinant for the effective use of instructional methods (Paas et al. 2003(Paas et al. , 2004;;Sweller et al. 1998;Van Merriënboer and Sweller 2005).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Sweller et al. 1998
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Metadata
- Authors
- Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Maastricht University (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Sweller, John
- Venue
- Educational Psychology Review
- Published
- 1998-09
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 251-296
- ISSN
- 1040-726X (ISSN-L)
- 1573-336X
- OpenAlex
- W2096036274
- Semantic Scholar
- efa6ed36bfeaccb63b5e408c976bea0961873f90
- Cited by
- 6,023
- References
- 98
- Citations by year
- 2026: 512 · 2025: 410 · 2024: 370 · 2023: 304 · 2022: 320 · 2021: 304 · 2020: 325 · 2019: 323 · 2018: 255 · 2017: 257 · 2016: 246 · 2015: 271 · 2014: 264 · 2013: 286 · 2012: 242
- FWCI
- 25.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Educational Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- University of Twente Research Information (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- cognitive load theory, cognitive architecture, working memory, long-term memory, schemas, instructional design, schema construction, visual processing
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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