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Conceptualizing and Measuring Historical Trauma Among American Indian People
Abstract
This article reports on the development of two measures relating to historical trauma among American Indian people: The Historical Loss Scale and The Historical Loss Associated Symptoms Scale. Measurement characteristics including frequencies, internal reliability, and confirmatory factor analyses were calculated based on 143 American Indian adult parents of children aged 10 through 12 years who are part of an ongoing longitudinal study of American Indian families in the upper Midwest. Results indicate both scales have high internal reliability. Frequencies indicate that the current generation of American Indian adults have frequent thoughts pertaining to historical losses and that they associate these losses with negative feelings. Two factors of the Historical Loss Associated Symptoms Scale indicate one anxiety/depression component and one anger/avoidance component. The results are discussed in terms of future research and theory pertaining to historical trauma among American Indian people.
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“It is physically and emotionally destructive, manifesting in problems such as depression, anxiety, shared posttraumatic stress, and substance use (Brave Heart et al., 2011; Gone and Alcántara, 2007; Whitbeck et al., 2004) that lead to adverse health outcomes (e.g., diabetes, suicide, cancer) (Bezo and Maggi, 2018; Goodkind et al., 2012; Shrira et al., 2011).”
From Cultural trauma as a fundamental cause of health disparities (2022) · cites this paper as Whitbeck et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“Second, the empirical evidence indicating that cultural trauma impacts health (Hartmann and Gone, 2014; Krieg, 2009; Whitbeck et al., 2004) is distributed across different constructs (e.g., collective vs. historical vs. intergenerational trauma), each describing separate aspects of the trauma experience that are often specific to different cultural groups (Sotero, 2006).”
From Cultural trauma as a fundamental cause of health disparities (2022) · cites this paper as Whitbeck et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“These wounds may be felt collectively across generations, impacting offspring through exposure to daily reminders of the cultural trauma including discrimination and loss of traditional languages, family systems, and spiritual/healing practices”
From Cultural trauma as a fundamental cause of health disparities (2022) · cites this paper as Whitbeck et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“Many studies reported significant associations between higher levels of reported historical trauma experience and adverse health outcomes; specifically, several studies linked historical trauma to increased substance use [26,27,28,29].”
From Substance and Behavioral Addictions among American Indian and Alaska Native Populations (2022) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“Previous research has established historical trauma as directly linked to poor health outcomes and increased substance use [20,21,22,26,27,28,29,99].”
From Substance and Behavioral Addictions among American Indian and Alaska Native Populations (2022) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“Potentially as a direct result, or through indirect associations, AIANs resorted to substance use and other behavioral addictions to cope with the multiple, chronic, and acute stressors related to discrimination, cultural and material losses, genocide, and knowledge of the deliberate efforts to erase the culture [26,27,28,29,99].”
From Substance and Behavioral Addictions among American Indian and Alaska Native Populations (2022) · cites this paper as [28]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Whitbeck, L. B., Adams, G. W., Hoyt, D. R., & Chen, X.
- Affiliations
- University of Nebraska–Lincoln (US)
- Corresponding author
- Whitbeck, Les B.
- Venue
- American Journal of Community Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2004-06
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 3-4
- Pages
- 119-130
- ISSN
- 0091-0562 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-2770
- OpenAlex
- W2073009850
- Cited by
- 751
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 52 · 2025: 53 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 44 · 2020: 48 · 2019: 58 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 42 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 28 · 2013: 46 · 2012: 35
- FWCI
- 1.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Community Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA 13580, R01DA013580)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Indigenous Health, Education, and Rights
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Anthropology › Indigenous Cultures and History
- Keywords
- historical trauma, American Indian peoples, scale development, historical loss, anxiety and depression, Native American families
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Culture, Humans, Indians, North American, Life Change Events, Social Identification, Midwestern United States, Focus Groups
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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