Evolution of the Earth's polar outflow from mid-Archean to present
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Abstract The development of habitable conditions on Earth is tightly connected to the evolution of its atmosphere, which is strongly influenced by atmospheric escape. We investigate the evolution of the polar ion outflow from the open field line bundle, which is the dominant escape mechanism for the modern Earth. We perform Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) simulations and estimate the upper limits on escape rates from the Earth's open field line bundle starting from 3 gigayears ago (Ga) to present assuming the present‐day composition of the atmosphere. We perform two additional simulations with lower mixing ratios of oxygen of 1% and 15% to account for the conditions shortly after the Great Oxydation Event (GOE). We estimate the maximum loss rates due to polar outflow 3 gigayears ago of 3.3×10 27 s −1 and 2.4×10 27 s −1 for oxygen and nitrogen, respectively. The total integrated mass loss equals to 39% and 10% of the modern atmosphere's mass, for oxygen and nitrogen, respectively. According to our results, the main factors that governed the polar outflow in the considered time period are the evolution of the XUV radiation of the Sun and the atmosphere's composition. The evolution of the Earth's magnetic field plays a less important role. We conclude that although the atmosphere with the present‐day composition can survive the escape due to polar outflow, a higher level of CO 2 between 3.0 and 2.0 Ga was likely necessary to reduce the escape.
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Kislyakova et al. (2020) found loss rates due to polar outflow at approximately 3 Ga of approximately 3.3×10^27 s^-1 and approximately 2.5×10^27 s^-1 for O+ and N+ ions.
“already found loss rates due to polar outflow at ≈ 3 Ga of ≈ 3 . 3 × 10 27 s -1 and ≈ 2 . 5 × 10 27 s -1 for O + and N + ions.”
From The young Sun's XUV-activity as a constraint for lower CO2-limits in the Earth's Archean atmosphere (2021) · cites this paper as Kislyakova et al. (2020)
Table 3 (Results, p. 13) gives the 3.0 Ga maximum polar-outflow rates as 3.3 × 10^27 s^-1 for O+ and 2.3 × 10^27 s^-1 for N+, not the claimed approximately 2.5 × 10^27 s^-1 for N+. The Results (p. 12) also caution that these modeled rates are upper limits, because some ions may be recaptured. (LLM, conf=0.89)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIon outflow might have been significant during the Hadean eon.
“That ion outflow might have been significant during the Hadean eon is already indicated by recent findings of Kislyakova et al. (2020)”
From The young Sun's XUV-activity as a constraint for lower CO2-limits in the Earth's Archean atmosphere (2021) · cites this paper as Kislyakova et al. (2020)
The Abstract (p. 2) reports substantial modeled polar ion outflow at 3 Ga, supporting the general point that early-Earth ion outflow could be significant. But the Introduction (p. 3) limits the study to 3 Ga through the present, and the Conclusions (p. 15) say conditions might have differed before 3 Ga. The paper does not establish significant outflow during the earlier Hadean eon. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAccording to Kislyakova et al. (2020), the main parameters that governed atmospheric escape during the studied time period are the evolution of the young Sun's XUV radiation and the atmosphere composition, while the evolution of the Earth's magnetic field had a less important role.
“According to their results, the main parameters that governed the atmospheric escape during the studied time period are the evolution of the young Sun's XUV radiation and the atmosphere composition, while the evolution of the Earth's magnetic field had a less important role.”
From The young Sun's XUV-activity as a constraint for lower CO2-limits in the Earth's Archean atmosphere (2021) · cites this paper as Kislyakova et al. (2020)
The Conclusions (p. 15) identify solar XUV output and atmospheric composition as the main influences, with magnetic-field evolution playing a lesser role. But that conclusion is specifically about modeled polar outflow escape from 3.0 Ga onward, under stated assumptions about polar plasma parameters; the citing sentence broadens it to atmospheric escape generally. (LLM, conf=0.84)
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Way, M. J., Ostberg, C. M., Foley, B. J., Gillmann, C., Höning, D., Lammer, H., O'Rourke, J. G., Persson, M., Plesa, A., Salvador, A., et al. (2023) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-023-00953-3 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citationDid Mars Possess a Dense Atmosphere During the First $\sim400$ Million Years?
Scherf, M., & Lammer, H. (2020) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-020-00779-3 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationLammer, H., Scherf, M., Itō, Y., Mura, A., Vorburger, A., Guenther, E. W., Wurz, P., Erkaev, N. V., & Odert, P. (2022) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-022-00876-5 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationEta-Earth Revisited II: Deriving a Maximum Number of Earth-Like Habitats in the Galactic Disk
Scherf, M., Lammer, H., & Sproß, L. (2024) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2023.0076 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationVarela, J., Brun, A. S., Strugarek, A., Réville, V., Zarka, P., & Pantellini, F. G. E. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad2519 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Evolution of Terrestrial Planetary Bodies and Implications for Habitability
Cawood, P. A., Stüeken, E. E., Chowdhury, P., Hawkesworth, C. J., & Mulder, J. A. (2025) · Reviews of Geophysics · doi:10.1029/2025rg000902 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Space plasma physics science opportunities for the lunar orbital platform - Gateway
Dandouras, I., Taylor, M. G. G. T., Keyser, J. D., Futaana, Y., Bamford, R., Branduardi-Raymont, G., Chaufray, J., Constantinescu, D., Angelis, E. D., Devoto, P., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences · doi:10.3389/fspas.2023.1120302 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationFuture Directions for the Investigation of Surface-Bounded Exospheres in the Inner Solar System
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Self-citationEvolution of Earth's oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon polar outflow in the Archean eon
Grasser, N., Kislyakova, K. G., Scherf, M., Lammer, H., & Looveren, G. V. (2023) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118442 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationEta-Earth Revisited I: A Formula for Estimating the Maximum Number of Earth-Like Habitats
Lammer, H., Scherf, M., & Sproß, L. (2024) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2023.0075 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationZhang, H., Fu, S. Y., Fu, S., Zhong, J., Ni, B., Wei, Y., Pu, Z. Y., Chen, Y., Ge, Y. S., Zong, Q., et al. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac8a93 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
High-energy particle observations from the Moon
Dandouras, I., & Roussos, E. (2024) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences · doi:10.1098/rsta.2023.0311 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Scherf, M., Krauß, S., Tsurikov, G., Strasser, A., Shematovich, V. I., Бисикало, Д. В., Lammer, H., Güdel, M., & Möstl, C. (2026) · Annales Geophysicae · doi:10.5194/angeo-44-209-2026 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationUpper Atmosphere Dynamics and Drivers of Volatiles Loss from Terrestrial-Type (Exo)Planets
Kubyshkina, D. V., Way, M. J., Dandouras, I., Lammer, H., Lanza, A. F., Lingam, M., Nakamura, R., Persson, M., Scherf, M., & Seki, K. (2026) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-026-01283-w · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationVariability of Earth’s ionospheric outflow in response to the dynamic terrestrial exosphere
Lin, M., Cucho‐Padin, G., Oliveira, P., Glocer, A., & Rojas, E. L. (2024) · Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences · doi:10.3389/fspas.2024.1462957 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Бисикало, Д. В., Shematovich, V. I., Zhilkin, A. G., & Tsurikov, G. N. (2026) · Astronomy Reports · doi:10.1134/s1063772926700198 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Comparing Monte Carlo Models of Impact Alteration of Planetary Atmospheres
Huffman, M. R., Brain, D. A., Singer, K. N., Johnston, J. C., & Caldwell, C. A. (2026) · Journal of Geophysical Research Planets · doi:10.1029/2025je009581
Evolution of Atmospheric Oxygen Escape From Earth Since the Great Oxidation Event
Tagle, M. L. A., Maggiolo, R., Gunell, H., Keyser, J. D., Borlina, C. S., Dandouras, I., Evensberget, D., Nichols, C. I. O., Vidotto, A. A., Cessateur, G., et al. (2026) · Journal of Geophysical Research Space Physics · doi:10.1029/2025ja034228
- Authors
- Kislyakova, K. G., Johnstone, C. P., Scherf, M., Holmström, M., Alexeev, I. I., Lammer, H., Khodachenko, M. L., & Güdel, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Vienna (AT)
- Austrian Academy of Sciences (AT)
- Swedish Institute of Space Physics (SE)
- Skobeltsyn Institute of Nuclear Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University (RU)
- Russian Academy of Sciences (RU)
- Corresponding author
- Kislyakova, K. G.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Geophysical Research Space Physics
- Publisher
- American Geophysical Union (AGU)
- Published
- 2020-08
- Volume
- 125
- Issue
- 8
- ISSN
- 2169-9380 (ISSN-L)
- 2169-9402
- OpenAlex
- W3041835497
- Cited by
- 20
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 1.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Geophysical Research Space Physics (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- Austrian Science Fund (S116‐N16, S11604‐N16, S11606‐N16, S11607‐N16)
- Österreichische Forschungsförderungsgesellschaft (873671)
- Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation (RFMEFI61619X0119)
- Russian Science Foundation (18‐12‐00080)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Ionosphere and magnetosphere dynamics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astro and Planetary Science
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Atmospheric Science › Earth Systems and Cosmic Evolution
- Keywords
- atmospheric escape, early Earth atmosphere, Great Oxidation Event, atmospheric composition, carbon dioxide, habitability, geomagnetic field, mass loss
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