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The unbearable automaticity of being
Abstract
What was noted by E. J. hanger (1978) remains true today: that much of contemporary psychological research is based on the assumption that people are consciously and systematically processing incoming information in order to construe and interpret their world and to plan and engage in courses of action. As did E. J. hanger, the authors question this assumption. First, they review evidence that the ability to exercise such conscious, intentional control is actually quite limited, so that most of moment-to-moment psychological life must occur through nonconscious means if it is to occur at all. The authors then describe the different possible mechanisms that produce automatic, environmental control over these various phenomena and review evidence establishing both the existence of these mechanisms as well as their consequences for judgments, emotions, and
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“In fact much psychological research (Bargh and Chartrand, 1999; Chaiken and Trope, 1999; Cohen, 2014) demonstrates that even apparently rational thought processes are strongly influenced by emotional states.”
From Somatic experiencing: using interoception and proprioception as core elements of trauma therapy (2015) · cites this paper as Bargh and Chartrand, 1999
In the citing paper
“Coupled with the huge body of evidence suggesting that cortical (cognitive) functions are not intrinsically conscious (see Bargh and Chartrand, 1999, for review)”
From The Hard Problem of Consciousness and the Free Energy Principle (2019) · cites this paper as Bargh and Chartrand, 1999
In the citing paper
“The finding that people are often unaware of key behavioural motivations and triggers has been demonstrated previously in experimental studies”
From A systematic review of the factors associated with delays in medical and psychological help-seeking among men (2015) · cites this paper as Bargh & Chartrand, 1999
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“One need not take time to think to express implicit representations; in fact, adults are often unaware of these representations and fail to articulate their implicit attitudes and beliefs (e.g., Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Nisbett & Wilson, 1977).”
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“However, research on social cognition has highlighted the important difference between automatic (implicit) and controlled (explicit) processes (e.g., Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Chaiken & Trope, 1999).”
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“The work by Bargh and his colleagues emerges from a “dual-process” perspective that appreciates both the conscious and non-conscious information-processing aspects of experience (e.g., Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Bargh & Ferguson, 2000).”
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Hautamäki, J., Arinen, P., Niemivirta, M., Eronen, S., Hautamäki, A., Kupiainen, S., Lindblom, B., Pakaslahti, L., Rantanen, P., & Scheinin, P. (2002) · Cited by 103
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“Finally, emotional influences by non-attended emotional stimuli are ubiquitous (Bargh and Chartrand, 1999).”
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Frith, C., & Wolpert, D. M. (2004) · Cited by 104
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“The ad in the first medium, ‘the prime’ affects or facilitates subsequent responding to the ad in the second medium, ‘the target’ (eg, Bargh and Chartrand 1999 ; Logan 1989 ; Abad, Noguera, and Ortells 2003 ).”
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“Even people’s goals and behavior are affected by stimuli outside conscious awareness (Bargh and Chartrand [1999]).”
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Rationality, perception, and the all-seeing eye
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“Some researchers (Bargh and Chartrand 1999; Gigerenzer 2008; Lapsley and Narvaez 2008; Sunstein 2005) assert that 1 3 intuition and its consequent behavior are constructed almost completely through environmental stimuli.”
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Origins of a stereotype: categorization of facial attractiveness by 6‐month‐old infants
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“As a result, stereotypes can become so automatic that people are unaware of them and their activation (e.g. Banaji & Greenwald, 1994; Bargh & Chartrand, 1999).”
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O’Leary-Kelly, A. M., Paetzold, R. L., & Griffin, R. W. (2000) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.2307/259019 · Cited by 116
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“Such dissociations may not only help to clarify discovered memories, but may also illuminate a variety of other domains, such as automaticity (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999), awareness of emotions (Zajonc, 1980), mental control (Wegner, 1994), implicit attitudes (Wilson, Lindsey, & T. Schooler, 2000),…”
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New project for a scientific psychology: General scheme
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“Research in social cognitive psychology has established the ubiquity and importance of such processes in judgment and action (e.g., Bargh and Chartrand 1999; Bargh and Ferguson 2000).”
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“According to the “Grace” hypothesis, honest behavior happens more automatically, without the need for active self-control at the time of choice (Bargh and Chartrand, 1999; Haidt, 2001).”
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“However, if stereotype threat prompts attention to execution in a manner in which experts are not accustomed, this attention may disrupt proceduralized performance processes that normally run outside of conscious control.”
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Berger, J. A., & Heath, C. (2005) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog0000_10 · Cited by 96
“This cueing will in most situations happen relatively automatically ( Bargh & Chartrand, 1999 ), making it easier for individuals to “decide” among cultural elements.”
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Effects of Stereotypes About Feminists on Feminist Self-Identification
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“In the climate of our culture, negative stereotypes are so prevalent that further negative priming may not be necessary to keep women from self-identifying as feminists ( Bargh & Chartrand, 1999 ).”
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“Compared to controlled processes, these automatic processes arguably constitute a larger part of our day to day life and—along with controlled processes—are essential for the regulation of social behavior (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Bargh & Williams, 2006).”
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Francesca Gino, B., & Ariely, D. (2011) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1738311 · Cited by 94
Mental Action and the Threat of Automaticity
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“Perhaps this is what Bargh and Chartrand mean when they speak of “deliberative choices”. Still, these do not accompany every action, though when they do, they may contribute to action by setting one’s intentions. There are also questions about unconscious vision that is also behind talk of zombie agents. On this, see…”
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Dedeke, A. (2013) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-013-1965-y · Cited by 101
Do We Know How Happy We Are? On Some Limits of Affective Introspection and Recall
Haybron, D. M. (2007) · Noûs · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0068.2007.00653.x · Cited by 98
Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., Hagger, M. S., Biddle, S., & Karageorghis, C. I. (2002) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105302007006872 · Cited by 95
“According to Bargh and Chartrand (1999), frequency and consistency of execution of behaviour in the past constitutes the main ingredient that nurtures development of habits.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialInfants' Differential Processing of Female and Male Faces
Rennels, J. L., & Langlois, J. H. (2006) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2006.00407.x · Cited by 93
“Thus, one byproduct of this otherwise adaptive process of categorization is the formation of stereotypes (e.g., Bargh & Chartrand, 1999 ).”
Beyond me: Mindful responses to social threat.
Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., Creswell, J. D., & Niemiec, C. P. (2008) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/11771-007 · Cited by 100
Motivated cognition and fairness: Insights, integration, and creating a path forward.
Barclay, L. J., Bashshur, M. R., & Fortin, M. (2017) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000204 · Cited by 100
“For example, they can selectively draw on memories or information (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999) or creatively combine knowledge to construct beliefs to support their desired conclusion (Kunda, 1990), both processes that may occur outside of conscious awareness.”
BackgroundCurrent Methods of Assessing Substance Use: A Review of Strengths, Problems, and Developments
Richter, L., & Johnson, P. B. (2001) · Journal of Drug Issues · doi:10.1177/002204260103100401 · Cited by 97
“This technique draws on a methodology developed by researchers in the field of social psychology for examining people’s “sensitive” attitudes, for example those related to prejudicial or biased thoughts (e.g., Bargh & Chartrand, 1999).”
MethodThe Case of Internalized Homophobia
Russell, G. M., & Bohan, J. S. (2006) · Theory & Psychology · doi:10.1177/0959354306064283 · Cited by 104
“…is the notion of ‘automaticity’, a term employed to designate the activation of cognitive structures that are so ingrained as to be outside awareness, even though they are instrumental in generating acts (e.g. Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Nathanson, Wilson, McGee, & Sebastian, 2002; Park, 1999).”
BackgroundHow to Measure Cerebral Correlates of Emotions in Marketing Relevant Tasks
Vecchiato, G., Cherubino, P., Maglione, A. G., Ezquierro, M. T. H., Marinozzi, F., Bini, F., Trettel, A., & Babiloni, F. (2014) · Cognitive Computation · doi:10.1007/s12559-014-9304-x · Cited by 92
“Supporting Damasio’s studies, Bargh and Chartrand [3] affirm that, although humans are definitely capable of conscious deliberation, many economically relevant decisions rely on automatic, fast and effective processes, which are not under the direct volitional control.”
BackgroundGreenwald, A. G. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.29.5.859 · Cited by 92
“Predictions of ideomotor theory have additionally been confirmed in a growing body of recent research (e.g., Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Hoffman, Sebald, & Stoecker, 2001; Knuf et al., 2001; Kunde, 2001; Wegner, Ansfield, & Pilloff, 1998).”
ResultOptimism, self‐efficacy and information processing of threat‐ and well‐being‐related stimuli
Karademas, E. C., Kafetsios, K. G., & Sideridis, G. D. (2007) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.1147 · Cited by 98
The rationality of emotions: A hybrid process model of decision-making under uncertainty
Li, Y., Ashkanasy, N. M., & Ahlström, D. (2013) · Asia Pacific Journal of Management · doi:10.1007/s10490-012-9341-5 · Cited by 98
Rethinking Neuroethics in the Light of the Extended Mind Thesis
Levy, N. L. (2007) · The American Journal of Bioethics · doi:10.1080/15265160701518466 · Cited by 136
“Consider, for instance, the distinction often made between controlled and automatic processes ( Bargh & Chartrand 1999; Wegner 2005).”
BackgroundLanguage Use, Coordination, and the Emergence of Cooperative Action
Fowler, C. A., Richardson, M. J., Marsh, K. L., & Shockley, K. D. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74479-5_13 · Cited by 91
“, mimicry) and cooperative intent ([5], see [11, 19] for reviews), as well as feelings of rapport et al.”
BackgroundThe role of affect in science literacy for all
Fortus, D., Lin, J., Neumann, K., & Sadler, T. D. (2022) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2022.2036384 · Cited by 91
“In many, if not most areas of life, we are more instinctive creatures than rational ones (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999).”
BackgroundGawronski, B., & Cesario, J. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868313480096 · Cited by 97
An integrative review of process dissociation and related models in social cognition
Payne, B. K., & Bishara, A. J. (2009) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280903162177 · Cited by 94
Takeuchi, R., Lepak, D. P., Marinova, S. V., & Yun, S. (2007) · Journal of International Business Studies · doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400298 · Cited by 90
“…processing to consciously and willfully regulate their own behavior only when perceived culture novelty becomes noticeably undesirable, thus prompting an ‘automatic vigilance’ mechanism directing attentional capacity to undesirable stimuli (e.g., Pratto and John, 1991; Bargh and Chartrand, 1999).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1999-07
- Volume
- 54
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 462-479
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2130142026
- Cited by
- 3,699
- References
- 151
- Citations by year
- 2026: 78 · 2025: 82 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 77 · 2022: 140 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 146 · 2019: 185 · 2018: 122 · 2017: 140 · 2016: 156 · 2015: 184 · 2014: 217 · 2013: 207 · 2012: 188
- FWCI
- 36.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Keywords
- automaticity, unconscious processes, conscious control, environmental control, automatic processes, judgment, emotions, intentional control, information processing
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