The DOI matches its Crossref record; 148 of the 151 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The unbearable automaticity of being
Abstract
What was noted by E. J. hanger (1978) remains true today: that much of contemporary psychological research is based on the assumption that people are consciously and systematically processing incoming information in order to construe and interpret their world and to plan and engage in courses of action. As did E. J. hanger, the authors question this assumption. First, they review evidence that the ability to exercise such conscious, intentional control is actually quite limited, so that most of moment-to-moment psychological life must occur through nonconscious means if it is to occur at all. The authors then describe the different possible mechanisms that produce automatic, environmental control over these various phenomena and review evidence establishing both the existence of these mechanisms as well as their consequences for judgments, emotions, and
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“In fact much psychological research (Bargh and Chartrand, 1999; Chaiken and Trope, 1999; Cohen, 2014) demonstrates that even apparently rational thought processes are strongly influenced by emotional states.”
From Somatic experiencing: using interoception and proprioception as core elements of trauma therapy (2015) · cites this paper as Bargh and Chartrand, 1999
In the citing paper
“Coupled with the huge body of evidence suggesting that cortical (cognitive) functions are not intrinsically conscious (see Bargh and Chartrand, 1999, for review)”
From The Hard Problem of Consciousness and the Free Energy Principle (2019) · cites this paper as Bargh and Chartrand, 1999
In the citing paper
“The finding that people are often unaware of key behavioural motivations and triggers has been demonstrated previously in experimental studies”
From A systematic review of the factors associated with delays in medical and psychological help-seeking among men (2015) · cites this paper as Bargh & Chartrand, 1999
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Fishbach, A., Friedman, R., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.2.296 · Cited by 955
“Specifically, in their seminal research on these issues, Bargh and his colleagues (Bargh, 1997; Bargh & Chartrand, 1999 ) found that external cues activate personal goals outside the realm of awareness and that these goals, in turn, influence information processing, choice, and behavior to the same extent as do consci…”
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BackgroundPaying Attention to Mindfulness and Its Effects on Task Performance in the Workplace
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“It has been suggested that people process the behavior of others and engage in imitation unconsciously (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Nolan, Schultz, Cialdini, Goldstein, & Griskevicius, 2008).”
Reducing implicit racial preferences: I. A comparative investigation of 17 interventions.
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“However, considerable evidence exists for the related phenomenon in which stimulus cues prime associated goals and constructs, often outside of conscious awareness ( Bargh & Chartrand, 1999 ).”
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“…that guides participants through the review and goal-setting process can free up the cognitive resources of participants, in essence allowing them to focus on reflecting, discussing, and learning from their experiences without worrying about managing the “process” (cf. Bargh & Chartrand, 1999).”
BackgroundThe dark side of creativity: Original thinkers can be more dishonest.
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“We employed a scrambled sentence test, a frequently used method (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Chartrand & Bargh, 1996) for manipulating respondents’ momentary mindset.”
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“There is now increasing evidence that one individual's emotion-related bodily movements can at times trigger that emotion in other persons (see Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; and Neumann & Strack, 2000, for a summary of relevant research).”
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Afifi, W. A., & Weiner, J. L. (2004) · Communication Theory · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00310.x · Cited by 683
Wealth Accumulation and the Propensity to Plan
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Cognitive Representations of Attachment: The Content and Function of Working Models
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Attitudes as Object–Evaluation Associations of Varying Strength
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“Finally, research by Chartrand and Bargh (1999, as discussed in Bargh & Chartrand, 1999) has examined the interesting possibility that differential mood states can sometimes arise, for seemingly unknow^n reasons , simply as a function of repeated exposure to valenced stimuli.”
BackgroundImplicit social cognition: from measures to mechanisms
Nosek, B. A., Hawkins, C. B., & Frazier, R. S. (2011) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.01.005 · Cited by 578
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“Recent research on the auto-motive model (Bargh, 1990; Bargh & Chartrand, 1999) suggests that the complete sequence of goal pursuit can occur entirely outside of conscious awareness.”
Self-citationA review of contemporary ideomotor theory.
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“As Bargh and Chartrand (1999) noted, Initially, conscious choice and guidance are needed to perform the desired behavior. . . .”
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Creswell, J. D., & Lindsay, E. K. (2014) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721414547415 · Cited by 543
“…be mindful stands in contrast to much of our daily experience, in which we operate on automatic pilot without much awareness of what we are doing (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999); we easily drift off into mind wandering (Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010); and, when times get difficult, we often react…”
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Pronin, E., Gilovich, T., & Ross, L. (2004) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.111.3.781 · Cited by 771
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“Moreover, social psychological research shows that individuals rarely engage in the deliberate, extensive reasoning proposed by rationalist models (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995).”
BackgroundConserving self-control strength.
Muraven, M., Shmueli‐Blumberg, D., & Burkley, E. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.3.524 · Cited by 592
“When people exert self-control, they inhibit their normal, typical, or automatic behavior ( Bargh & Chartrand, 1999 ).”
BackgroundEnvironmental influences on energy balance-related behaviors: A dual-process view
Kremers, S. P., de Bruijn, G.-J., Visscher, T. L., van Mechelen, W., de Vries, N. K., & Brug, J. (2006) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/1479-5868-3-9 · Cited by 552
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“If people consistently pursue the same goal in a given situation, they may come to activate it automatically in that situation (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Mischel & Shoda, 1995).”
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Dijksterhuis, A. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.5.586 · Cited by 836
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“This analysis is consistent with that of Bargh and Chartrand (1999) who have argued that most of our behaviors are not initiated by conscious will over a broad range of situations but rather are automatically triggered in response to the presence of environmental stimuli.”
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A Motivated Action Theory Account of Goal Orientation.
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“ultimate purpose of being, we focus on goal states that meet Baumeister and Leary’s (1995) criteria for fundamental goal status.”
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“Bargh and Chartrand (1999) stated a part of Wilson’s debunking thesis when they wrote the following: ‘‘it may be, especially for evaluations and judgments of novel people and objects, that what we think we are doing while consciously deliberating in actuality has no effect on the outcome of the…”
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“…advocate the importance of unconscious processes by demonstrating that important psychological processes do not need any conscious guidance (e.g., Bargh et al. 1996, 2001; Dijksterhuis & Nordgren 2006; Libet et al. 1983; Reber 1967) often meet with resistance because it feels as if consciousness…”
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“In the past 15 years or so, social cognition researchers have been unraveling unconscious effects of environmental cues on human behavior (see, e.g., Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Dijksterhuis, Chartrand, & Aarts, in press; Ferguson & Bargh, 2004b; Wegner & Bargh, 1998).”
BackgroundProblems for Judgment and Decision Making
Hastie, R. (2001) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.653 · Cited by 536
“An interactive model that assumes a constant mixture of intuitive-analytic modes (e.g. Anderson 1983, Jacoby 1991) seems more plausible than an independent channel model (e.g. Bargh & Chartrand 1999, Schacter 1994, Sloman 1996).”
MethodHurley, S. (2008) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x07003123 · Cited by 512
“…show that exposure to traits and stereotypes automatically elicits general patterns of behavior and attitude and influences how behavior is performed (Bargh 1999; 2005; Bargh & Chartrand 1999; Bargh et al. 1996; 2001; Chartrand & Bargh 1999; Chartrand et al. 2005; Dijksterhuis & Bargh 2001).”
The Addiction-Stroop test: Theoretical considerations and procedural recommendations.
Cox, W. M., Fadardi, J. S., & Pothos, E. M. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.443 · Cited by 541
Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., & Hagger, M. S. (2009) · Psychology & Health · doi:10.1080/08870440701809533 · Cited by 511
“The first process, which is known as the deliberative (Fazio, 1990) or systematic (Chaiken, 1980) mode of information processing, culminates in the formation of intentions and it is associated with behaviour indirectly via intentions (Bargh, 1994; Bargh & Chartrand, 1999).”
BackgroundThe sentimental citizen: emotion in democratic politics
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-3068 · Cited by 501
Redefining interactions across cultures and organizations: Moving forward with cultural intelligence
Earley, P. C. (2002) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0191-3085(02)24008-3 · Cited by 502
Civic Engagements: Resolute Partisanship or Reflective Deliberation
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“In familiar terrain, people automatically rely on routines and habits both to act as well as to make decisions (Bargh and Chartrand 1999).”
BackgroundImplementation intentions and efficient action initiation.
Brandstätter, V., Lengfelder, A., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.81.5.946 · Cited by 644
“The results of the four studies taken together provide clear evidence that forming implementation intentions instigates processes of action initiation that carry two crucial characteristics of automaticity, namely, the immediacy and efficiency of a response or process (Bargh, 1994, 1996, 1997; Bargh & Chartrand, 1999;…”
BackgroundSocial identity and inequality: The impact of China's hukou system
Afridi, F., Li, S. X., & Ren, Y. (2014) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.12.011 · Cited by 494
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“The finding that people are often unaware of key behavioural motivations and triggers has been demonstrated previously in experimental studies (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Brody, 1980).”
BackgroundA Disclosure Decision Model: Determining How and When Individuals Will Self-Disclose
Omarzu, J. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0402_05 · Cited by 494
A Conceptual Review of Decision Making in Social Dilemmas: Applying a Logic of Appropriateness
Weber, J. M., Kopelman, S., & Messick, D. M. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0803_4 · Cited by 503
“Bargh and Chartrand (1999) have characterized the “lion’s share” of human action as nonconscious and automatic.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPlanned, motivated and habitual hygiene behaviour: an eleven country review
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“Humans everywhere tend to confabulate, that is to make up post hoc rationales for practices which have actually been determined unconsciously [48].”
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Seligman, M. E. P., Railton, P., Baumeister, R. F., & Sripada, C. (2013) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691612474317 · Cited by 720
“Recent years have seen considerable attention to unconscious processes, which are often seen as “automatic” and coarse-grained in their responses (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Bargh & Ferguson, 2000, Haidt, 2001).”
BackgroundReducing Cardiovascular Stress With Positive Self-Stereotypes of Aging
Levy, B. R., Hausdorff, J. M., Hencke, R., & Wei, J. Y. (2000) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/55.4.p205 · Cited by 486
“That is, stereotypes are frequently activated without awareness (Banaji, Blair, & Glaser, 1997; Bargh & Chartand, 1999).”
BackgroundImplicit Trustworthiness Decisions: Automatic Coding of Face Properties in the Human Amygdala
Engell, A. D., Haxby, J. V., & Todorov, A. T. (2007) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.9.1508 · Cited by 489
“Important social decisions can be made without deliberation, without intention to make the decision, and in contexts not requiring the decision (Hassin, Uleman, & Bargh, 2005; Bargh & Chartland, 1999 ).”
BackgroundWorkforce Diversity and Inequality: Power, Status, and Numbers
DiTomaso, N., Post, C. A., & Parks-Yancy, R. (2007) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131805 · Cited by 498
Domain and Development of Cultural Intelligence
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The intuitive executive:Understanding and applying ‘gut feel’ in decision-making
Sadler‐Smith, E., & Shefy, E. (2004) · Academy of Management Perspectives · doi:10.5465/ame.2004.15268692 · Cited by 499
Action Perspectives on Human Development
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Objective Self-Awareness Theory: Recent Progress and Enduring Problems
Silvia, P. J., & Duval, T. S. (2001) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0503_4 · Cited by 504
Atran, S., & Henrich, J. (2010) · Biological Theory · doi:10.1162/biot_a_00018 · Cited by 459
“Experiments with North Americans show that unconsciously activating religious concepts lead to reduced cheating and greater generosity toward strangers (Bargh and Chartrand 1999; Mazar and Ariely 2006; Shariff and Norenzayan 2007), except among ardent atheists.”
BackgroundEmotion-focused therapy: Coaching clients to work through their feelings.
Greenberg, L. S. (2002) · doi:10.1037/10447-000 · Cited by 843
Beyond sacrificial harm: a two-dimensional model of utilitarian psychology
Kahane, G., Everett, J. A. C., Earp, B. D., Caviola, L., Faber, N. S., Crockett, M. J., & Savulescu, J. (2018) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000093 · Cited by 434
“Dual process models conceptualize cognition as resulting from the competition between quick, intuitive, and automatic processes, and slow, deliberative, and controlled processes (e.g., Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Chaiken & Trope, 1999; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977).”
Are Zero Tolerance Policies Effective in the Schools? An Evidentiary Review and Recommendations
Skiba, R. J., Reynolds, C. R., Graham, S., Sheras, P. L., Conoley, J. C., & García‐Vázquez, E. (2006) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e516602012-001 · Cited by 454
The silence of the library: Environment, situational norm, and social behavior.
Aarts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.18 · Cited by 624
“More specifically, stimulated by recent work on automaticity in social behavior (Aarts & Dijksterhuis, 2000; Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Dijksterhuis & Bargh, 2001), we will test whether, and under which circumstances, environments are capable of activating (mental representations of) normative behavior automatically.”
MethodAlexandrov, A., Lilly, B., & Babakus, E. (2013) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/s11747-012-0323-4 · Cited by 448
How to Capture the Heart? Reviewing 20 Years of Emotion Measurement in Advertising
Poels, K., & Dewitte, S. (2006) · Journal of Advertising Research · doi:10.2139/ssrn.944401 · Cited by 495
Einstein, G. O., & McDaniel, M. A. (2005) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00382.x · Cited by 441
“Our thinking was influenced by subjective reports from participants in our earliest research indicating that the PM intention often "popped" into mind (Einstein & McDaniel, 1990) and by Bargh and Chartrand's (1999) arguments that people have a limited capacity for conscious control over behavior and that many be havio…”
The Multiple Self-Aspects Framework: Self-Concept Representation and Its Implications
McConnell, A. R. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868310371101 · Cited by 478
Burton, K. D., Lydon, J. E., D’Alessandro, D. U., & Koestner, R. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.750 · Cited by 442
Langer, E. J. (2000) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00099 · Cited by 426
“Some people (e.g., Bargh & Chartrand, 1999) believe that mindlessness is important because it frees limited cognitive resources.”
BackgroundWhat's in a name: Implicit self-esteem and the automatic self.
Koole, S. L., Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.80.4.669 · Cited by 424
Emotion-focused therapy for depression.
Greenberg, L. S., & Watson, J. C. (2006) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/11286-000 · Cited by 430
Patterns of neural activity associated with honest and dishonest moral decisions
Greene, J. D., & Paxton, J. M. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0900152106 · Cited by 430
“According to the ‘‘Grace’’ hypothesis, honesty results from the absence of temptation, consistent with research emphasizing the determination of behavior by the presence or absence of automatic processes (1, 18).”
ResultA Multidimensional Structure for Repetitive Thought: What's on Your Mind, and How, and How Much?
Segerstrom, S. C., Stanton, A. L., Alden, L. E., & Shortridge, B. E. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.909 · Cited by 452
Incorporating the Irrelevant: Anchors in Judgments of Belief and Value
Chapman, G. B., & Johnson, E. J. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.008 · Cited by 424
Sloman, S. A. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.024 · Cited by 412
Occupation as Transactional Experience: A Critique of Individualism in Occupational Science
Dickie, V. A., Cutchin, M. P., & Humphry, R. A. (2006) · Journal of Occupational Science · doi:10.1080/14427591.2006.9686573 · Cited by 412
The Interplay Between Goal Intentions and Implementation Intentions
Sheeran, P., Webb, T. L., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204271308 · Cited by 597
“However, another strand of contemporary research argues that cognitive and motivational processes are indispensable for understanding the situational control of social behavior (e.g., Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Bargh & Gollwitzer, 1994; Bargh, Gollwitzer, Lee-Chai, Barndollar, & Trotschel, 2001).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe sources of dynamism in dynamic capabilities
Salvato, C., & Vassolo, R. S. (2017) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.2703 · Cited by 462
On the interdependence of cognition and emotion
Storbeck, J., & Clore, G. L. (2007) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930701438020 · Cited by 449
“This process is often cited as the basis of affective primacy (e.g., Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Zajonc, 2000).”
Molinsky, A. L. (2007) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2007.24351878 · Cited by 425
“Encoded in the form of scripts or event-based schemas (Abelson, 1981; Gioia & Poole, 1984; Mezias, Chen, & Murphy, 1999), these norms are then primed when an individual steps into a particular role in a particular interaction (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Cialdini & Trost, 1998).”
BackgroundLaRose, R. (2010) · Communication Theory · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2010.01360.x · Cited by 404
Bounded Ethicality as a Psychological Barrier to Recognizing Conflicts of Interest
Chugh, D., Bazerman, M. H., & Banaji, M. R. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511610332.006 · Cited by 401
“In a growing, multimethod body of research, automaticity has been found to play some role in virtually every cognitive process studied, and its inevitability has been cleverly termed the "unbearable automaticity of being" (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999).”
BackgroundGlöckner, A., & Witteman, C. L. M. (2009) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546780903395748 · Cited by 434
“Since then the influence of automatic processes on social cognition has been highlighted repeatedly (Bargh, 1996 ; Bargh & Chartrand, 1999 ; Kruglanski et al, 2003 ; Strack & Deutsch, 2004 ).”
BackgroundBarsalou, L. W., Niedenthal, P. M., Barbey, A. K., & Ruppert, J. A. (2003) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(03)01011-9 · Cited by 422
Fixing our focus: Training attention to regulate emotion
Wadlinger, H. A., & Isaacowitz, D. M. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868310365565 · Cited by 396
“Task repetition can automate specific behaviors that can be generalized to other behaviors (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999).”
BackgroundThe Automaticity of Social Life
Bargh, J. A., & Williams, E. L. (2006) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2006.00395.x · Cited by 394
Self-citationFuture self‐continuity: how conceptions of the future self transform intertemporal choice
Ersner-Hershfield, H. (2011) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06201.x · Cited by 438
Metadata
- Authors
- Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1999-07
- Volume
- 54
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 462-479
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2130142026
- Cited by
- 3,699
- References
- 151
- Citations by year
- 2026: 78 · 2025: 82 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 77 · 2022: 140 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 146 · 2019: 185 · 2018: 122 · 2017: 140 · 2016: 156 · 2015: 184 · 2014: 217 · 2013: 207 · 2012: 188
- FWCI
- 36.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Keywords
- automaticity, unconscious processes, conscious control, environmental control, automatic processes, judgment, emotions, intentional control, information processing
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