The DOI matches its Crossref record; 60 of the 60 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Inference by Eye: Confidence Intervals and How to Read Pictures of Data.
Abstract
Wider use in psychology of confidence intervals (CIs), especially as error bars in figures, is a desirable development. However, psychologists seldom use CIs and may not understand them well. The authors discuss the interpretation of figures with error bars and analyze the relationship between CIs and statistical significance testing. They propose 7 rules of eye to guide the inferential use of figures with error bars. These include general principles: Seek bars that relate directly to effects of interest, be sensitive to experimental design, and interpret the intervals. They also include guidelines for inferential interpretation of the overlap of CIs on independent group means. Wider use of interval estimation in psychology has the potential to improve research communication substantially.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Citations
Cites
Methods of Meta-Analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (2015) · doi:10.4135/9781483398105 · Cited by 5,542
An Approximate Distribution of Estimates of Variance Components
Satterthwaite, F. E. (1946) · Biometrics Bulletin · doi:10.2307/3002019 · Cited by 4,373
Cohen, J. (1994) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.49.12.997 · Cited by 4,003
The Handbook of Research Synthesis.
Howel, D., Cooper, H., & Hedges, L. V. (1995) · Biometrics · doi:10.2307/2533295 · Cited by 3,657
Hunter, J., & Schmidt, F. (2004) · doi:10.4135/9781412985031 · Cited by 3,023
Statistical methods in psychology journals: Guidelines and explanations.
Wilkinson, L., & Task Force on Statistical Inference (1999) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.54.8.594 · Cited by 2,791
Mcgill, R., Tukey, J. W., & Larsen, W. A. (1978) · The American Statistician · doi:10.1080/00031305.1978.10479236 · Cited by 2,618
Using confidence intervals in within-subject designs
Loftus, G. R., & Masson, M. E. J. (1994) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03210951 · Cited by 2,433
Statistics for the social sciences
Hays, W. L. (1973) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,081
Edgington, E. S., Edgington, E., & Onghena, P. (1964) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1002/0471667196.ess2169 · Cited by 2,052
Research works printed but not linked: 6
- 2001, Publication manual of the American Psychological Association
- 10.1177/00131640121971374 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1177/00131640121971383 · DOI
- Light, 1994, The visual presentation and interpretation of meta-analysis., 439
- Smithson, 2002, Confidence intervals.
- Steiger, 1997, Noncentrality interval estimation and the evaluation of statistical models., 221
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 701–800 of 1,000
Salas‐Wright, C. P., & Vaughn, M. G. (2014) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260514564159 · Cited by 14
“Salas-Wright and Vaughn 1281 evidenced by non-overlapping CIs (Cumming & Finch, 2005), the magnitude of this relationship among men was significantly greater than the relationship between men’s physical size and bullying or physically hurting another person in any way on purpose.”
BackgroundInfluentialRosli, R., Han, S., Capraro, R. M., & Capraro, M. M. (2013) · Mathematics Education Research and Practice · doi:10.63311/jksmed.2013.17.4.221 · Cited by 14
Young, J., & Young, J. L. (2016) · Journal of Urban Mathematics Education · doi:10.21423/jume-v9i1a275 · Cited by 14
Statistical knowledge and the over-interpretation of student evaluations of teaching
Boysen, G. A. (2016) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2016.1227958 · Cited by 14
“In addition, the confidence intervals of the means all overlapped, and this suggests that the differences are not reliable (Cumming and Finch 2005).”
BackgroundBiological movement and the encoding of its motion and orientation
Benton, C. P., Thirkettle, M., & Scott‐Samuel, N. E. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep22393 · Cited by 13
Still Much to Learn About Confidence Intervals
Fidler, F. M., Thomason, N. R., Cumming, G., Finch, S. J., & Leeman, J. (2005) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01562.x · Cited by 14
“…between the means has a p value of about .05 when the separate 95% CIs overlap by about 25% of the length of either interval, and a p value of about .01 when the two intervals just touch end to end (see Cumming & Finch, 2005, for a discussion of the breadth of applicability of these rules).”
BackgroundSelf-citationJohnson, A. L., Hurd, P. L., Mathot, K. J., & Hamilton, T. J. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0335308 · Cited by 13
“With this CI, we indicate that we are 95% confident that our CI includes the actual effect size [38].”
Variation in caregivers' references to their toddlers: Child-directed speech in Vanuatu and Canada
Cebioğlu, S., Marin, K. A., & Broesch, T. (2022) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13833 · Cited by 13
“…figure offers information regarding the distribution of individual scores and whether the differences between samples are likely to be statistically significant given that a 50% overlap in CIs suggest a statistically significant difference (at p = .05) between sample means (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
ResultVommaro, M. L., Zanchi, C., Angelone, T., Giglio, A., & Kurtz, J. (2023) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122662 · Cited by 13
Engstrom, H. R., & Laurin, K. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2023.104577 · Cited by 17
Assessing observational constraints on future European climate in an out-of-sample framework
O’Reilly, C., Brunner, L., Qasmi, S., Nogherotto, R., Ballinger, A. P., Booth, B. B. B., Befort, D. J., Knutti, R., Schurer, A., Ribes, A., et al. (2024) · npj Climate and Atmospheric Science · doi:10.1038/s41612-024-00648-8 · Cited by 18
“69,70).”
The STROBE Statement and Neuropsychology: Lighting the Way Toward Evidence-Based Practice
Loring, D. W., & Bowden, S. C. (2013) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2012.762552 · Cited by 13
“In this context the confidence intervals provide an estimate of the likely range over which estimates of critical results might fall if the study were to be replicated, together with an indication of the precision of the reported results (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
BackgroundResultA framework for practical and rigorous impact monitoring by field managers of marine protected areas
Rouphael, A. B., Abdulla, A., & Said, Y. (2010) · Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10661-010-1805-9 · Cited by 13
“More formally, a CI is defined as a range of plausible values for the parameter being estimated (Cumming and Finch 2005).”
BackgroundFluctuations of psychological states on Twitter before and during COVID-19
Massell, J., Lieb, R., Meyer, A. H., & Mayor, E. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0278018 · Cited by 16
“01 in the classic null hypothesis significance testing framework [51].”
BackgroundSo, C., Khvan, A., & Choi, W. (2023) · Computer Animation and Virtual Worlds · doi:10.1002/cav.2149 · Cited by 16
“Because overlapping standard errors reveal the absence of significant differences, 117 the observed daily changes of perceptions do not allow any generalization of patterns.”
BackgroundAn Ecologically Framed Mercury Survey of Finfish of the Lower Chesapeake Bay
Xu, X., Newman, M. C., Fabrizio, M. C., & Lian, L. (2013) · Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology · doi:10.1007/s00244-013-9917-1 · Cited by 13
Short-term response of the herbaceous layer within leave patches after harvest
de Graaf, M., & Roberts, M. R. (2008) · Forest Ecology and Management · doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2008.11.007 · Cited by 13
Fidler, F. M. (2010) · Cited by 13
Applicability of the New Static-99 Experience Tables in Sexually Violent Predator Risk Assessments
Abbott, B. R. (2009) · Cited by 13
Dawrueng, T., Ngoprasert, D., Gale, G. A., Browne, S. J., & Savini, T. (2017) · Bird Conservation International · doi:10.1017/s0959270916000277 · Cited by 13
“The density of Great Argus males appeared to have decreased between the two surveys, looking at the 95% CI reported (see Cumming and Finch 2005).”
BackgroundCentral tendency and matched difference approaches for assessing interrater agreement.
Burke, M. J., Cohen, A., Doveh, E., & Smith‐Crowe, K. (2018) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000325 · Cited by 13
Liu, K., Subramanian, S. V., & Lu, C. (2019) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/s12939-019-0953-y · Cited by 13
Salas‐Wright, C. P., John, R. S., Vaughn, M. G., Eschmann, R., Cohen, M., AbiNader, M. A., & Delva, J. (2019) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.106029 · Cited by 13
Shah, A. A., Ravana, S. D., Hamid, S. B., & Ismail, M. A. (2020) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2020.3013411 · Cited by 13
“The same confidence levels have been used by several studies [53]–[56].”
Gibson, J. E., Werner, S. S., & Sweeney, A. (2015) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.21844 · Cited by 16
“When the confidence intervals do not include 0 we can be 95% confident that the real mean difference is more than 0, with larger absolute mean differences indicating larger effect sizes (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
BackgroundUNDERSTANDING REPLICATION: CONFIDENCE INTERVALS, p VALUES, AND WHAT'S LIKELY TO HAPPEN NEXT TIME
Cumming, G. (2006) · Cited by 13
Self-citationMartinig, A. R., Mathot, K. J., Lane, J. E., Dantzer, B., & Boutin, S. A. (2020) · Behavioral Ecology · doi:10.1093/beheco/araa136 · Cited by 12
STROE: An Ungrounded String-Based Weight Simulation Device
Achberger, A., Arulrajah, P., Sedlmair, M., & Vidačković, K. (2022) · IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR) · doi:10.1109/vr51125.2022.00029 · Cited by 12
“Cumming and Finch provide guidance on how p-values can be eye-balled from 95% CI plots [11].”
BackgroundCollateral damage from agricultural netting to open‐country bird populations in Thailand
Angkaew, R., Round, P. D., Ngoprasert, D., Powell, L. A., Limparungpatthanakij, W., & Gale, G. A. (2022) · Conservation Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/csp2.12810 · Cited by 12
Nasirov, S., & Joshi, A. M. (2023) · Research Policy · doi:10.1016/j.respol.2023.104870 · Cited by 14
An artificial intelligence-driven support tool for prediction of urine culture test results
Dedeene, L., Elslande, J. V., Dewitte, J., Martens, G. A., Laere, E. D., Jaeger, P. D., & Smet, D. D. (2024) · Clinica Chimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.cca.2024.119854 · Cited by 12
Gardner, B., Lally, P. J., & Rebar, A. L. (2024) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12600 · Cited by 16
Bodie, G. D., Pence, M. E., Rold, M. F., Chapman, M. D., Lejune, J., & Anzalone, L. (2015) · Communication Studies · doi:10.1080/10510974.2015.1039657 · Cited by 12
“Indeed, two means (or for paired data the mean of the differences) can overlap and still be statistically different from each other (i.e., a t test with p .05) (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
BackgroundGeukes, K., Schönbrodt, F. D., Utesch, T., Geukes, S., & Back, M. D. (2016) · Zeitschrift für Sportpsychologie · doi:10.1026/1612-5010/a000167 · Cited by 15
Context-explorer: Analysis of spatially organized protein expression in high-throughput screens
Östblom, J., Nazareth, E. J. P., Tewary, M., & Zandstra, P. W. (2019) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006384 · Cited by 10
“01 can be roughly inferred from non-overlapping pairs of 95% confidence intervals (Cumming and Finch, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialAgostini, F., Matthey, S., Minelli, M., Dellabartola, S., & Bonapace, S. (2019) · Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology · doi:10.1080/02646838.2019.1610730 · Cited by 12
“This use of more lenient CLs has been recommended by various statistician-researchers, including Cohen (1990) and Cumming and Finch (2005), particularly when exploring new ideas or hypotheseswhichmight otherwise be prematurely or falsely rejected if more stringent levels are used.”
Methodde Winter, J., Hu, J., & Petermeijer, B. (2022) · Journal on Multimodal User Interfaces · doi:10.1007/s12193-022-00390-6 · Cited by 12
“According to Cumming and Finch [41], nonoverlapping confidence intervals correspond to a p-value smaller than 0.”
BackgroundInfluentialZheng, Y., Li, J., & Vergunst, F. (2023) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2023.107558 · Cited by 12
Who are Most, Average, or High‐Functioning Adults?
Gregg, N., Coleman, C., Lindstrom, J. H., & Lee, C. (2007) · Learning Disabilities Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2007.00255.x · Cited by 12
“While related to standard error (SE), CI also include the critical value of the relevant test statistic (see Cumming & Finch, 2005 and Thompson, 2006 for in-depth discussions).”
BackgroundFitting and handling dose response data
Jones, G. (2014) · Journal of Computer-Aided Molecular Design · doi:10.1007/s10822-014-9752-0 · Cited by 12
Roche, K. M., Bingenheimer, J. B., & Ghazarian, S. R. (2016) · International Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/s00038-015-0781-9 · Cited by 12
“Following procedures described by Kofler et al. (2011) and Cumming and Finch (2005), we examined confidence intervals for standardized regression paths to determine the degree to which the strength of coefficients from Model 1 (support predicting depressive) were significantly different from those…”
MethodA Better Grasp on Pictures Under Glass
Goc, M. L., Dragicevic, P., Huron, S., Boy, J., & Fekete, J. (2016) · International Conference on Advanced Visual Interfaces (AVI) · doi:10.1145/2909132.2909247 · Cited by 12
“See [6] on how to interpret plots with CIs.”
BackgroundEnzmann, D. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-15834-7_10 · Cited by 12
Nopper, J. H., Riemann, J. C., Brinkmann, K., Rödel, M., & Ganzhorn, J. U. (2018) · Ecological Indicators · doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.02.004 · Cited by 14
Prayag, K. D., du Toit, C. J., Cramer, M. D., & Thomson, R. L. (2020) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.6798 · Cited by 12
“When comparing sample means, if 95% confidence intervals (CI) overlap by no more than half then p ≤ .05, and if 95% CIs do not overlap, then p ≤ .001 (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
BackgroundO’Hare, K., Hussain, A., Laurens, K. R., Hindmarsh, G., Carr, V. J., Tzoumakis, S., Harris, F. A. J., & Green, M. J. (2021) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-021-01841-3 · Cited by 14
“Groups were compared in terms of point estimates, and whether 95% confidence intervals were non-overlapping as a means of indicating distinctions between groups in their association with childhood mental health difficulties [49].”
BackgroundResultKarpanty, S. M., Cohen, J. B., Fraser, J. D., & Berkson, J. (2011) · Journal of Wildlife Management · doi:10.1002/jwmg.129 · Cited by 12
“We considered egg counts in controls to differ from egg counts in exclosures if their unconditional confidence intervals overlapped 50% (Cumming and Finch 2005).”
Local and non-local effects on surface-mediated stereoscopic depth
Gillam, B., Sedgwick, H. A., & Marlow, P. J. (2011) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/11.6.5 · Cited by 12
“Errors bars are not shown because they are inappropriate for correlated data ( Cumming & Finch , 2005 ) . main effect of direction of slant ( F ( 1 , 6 ) = 0 .”
Interpreting confidence intervals: A comment on Hoekstra, Morey, Rouder, and Wagenmakers (2014)
Miller, J., & Ulrich, R. (2016) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-015-0859-7 · Cited by 12
“In psychology, CIs are most often used to summarize information about measurement error (e.g., Cumming and Finch 2005) and thereby to facilitate the interpretation of both differences between observed means or proportions and differences between observed values and values predicted by a model.”
MethodPeterson, J. J., & Sesma, A. (2017) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/0098628317727643 · Cited by 12
“Cumming and Finch (2005) note that for independent groups, CIs that overlap by about 25% or less correspond to significance levels of p < .05.”
BackgroundDifferential Effects of Gender on Canadian Police Officers’ Perceptions of Stalking
Finnegan, H. A., Fritz, P. A. T., & Horrobin, B. (2017) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854817738279 · Cited by 11
“Confidence intervals with more than 0.5 proportion overlap (Cumming & Finch, 2005) indicate officers did not provide higher ratings on perceived seriousness for female targets of male perpetrators than male targets of female perpetrators (see Table 2). anticipated harm A univariate ANOVA estimated…”
BackgroundInfluentialPromoting Student Engagement: The Efficacy of a Criminal Justice Short-Term Study Abroad Program
Capps, J. E., Bradford, J., & Namgung, H. (2018) · Frontiers The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad · doi:10.36366/frontiers.v30i3.426 · Cited by 11
“In addition, 95% confidence intervals are visually checked to see if there is a significant overlap between errors of pre- and post-tests (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
BackgroundPermanent removal of livestock grazing in riparian systems benefits native vegetation
Jones, C. S., Duncan, D. H., Rumpff, L., Robinson, D., & Vesk, P. A. (2021) · Global Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01959 · Cited by 11
Neural networks for estimation of facial palsy after vestibular schwannoma surgery
Rampp, S., Holze, M., Scheller, C., Strauß, C., & Prell, J. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Monitoring and Computing · doi:10.1007/s10877-022-00928-9 · Cited by 11
Psychology Faculty Overestimate the Magnitude of Cohen’s d Effect Sizes by Half a Standard Deviation
Schuetze, B. A., & Yan, V. X. (2023) · Collabra Psychology · doi:10.1525/collabra.74020 · Cited by 12
Gado, S., Lingelbach, K., Wirzberger, M., & Vukelić, M. (2023) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s23146546 · Cited by 12
“01, the lower CI boundary of a classifier’s mean must not overlap with this grey line [78].”
BackgroundKim, K. M., Liu, X., Isbell, D. R., & Chen, X. (2024) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263124000214 · Cited by 11
Understanding mechanisms of generalization following locomotor adaptation
Rossi, C., Roemmich, R. T., & Bastian, A. J. (2024) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-024-00258-2 · Cited by 11
“Eachtestwasconsideredsigni fi cantiftheCIdidnot overlap the value speci fi ed in the null hypothesis 93 – 95 — see Tables 1 and 2.”
Kellogg, J. A., Monsivais, P., Murphy, K. M., & Perrigue, M. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17030430 · Cited by 9
“Confidence intervals (95% CI) were computed; data were compatible with any value of µ within the CIs but relatively incompatible with any value outside the CIs [38].”
Success Leads to Agentic Cognition: Two Field Studies
Baryła, W., & Wojciszke, B. (2018) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550618765065 · Cited by 11
Vijayakumar, R., & Cheung, M. W. ‐. (2019) · Social Science Computer Review · doi:10.1177/0894439319888445 · Cited by 11
“However, making such inferences based on graphical examination of 95% CIs lead to incorrect conclusions (Cumming & Finch, 2005), as estimates with overlapping CIs may be significantly different from each other.”
BackgroundDesign and Structure of The Juman++ Morphological Analyzer Toolkit
Tolmachev, A., Kawahara, D., & Kurohashi, S. (2020) · Journal of Natural Language Processing · doi:10.5715/jnlp.27.89 · Cited by 11
What influences buffet leftovers at event caterings? A German case study.
Leverenz, D., Moussawel, S., Hafner, G., & Kranert, M. (2020) · Waste Management · doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2020.07.029 · Cited by 11
Hanson, R. K., Newstrom, N. P., Brouillette‐Alarie, S., Thornton, D., Robinson, B. “. E., & Miner, M. H. (2020) · International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x20978204 · Cited by 12
“Examining the overlap in confidence intervals is a very low powered test (Cumming & Finch, 2005), as are statistical tests that treat the observations as uncorrelated (e.g., Hanley & McNeil, 1982).”
BackgroundRadatz, D. L., & Hilton, N. Z. (2021) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/00938548211035816 · Cited by 10
“…survival time of 593 days (SE = 22), 95% CI = [549, 638], and those at or above the median had a significantly shorter survival time of 539 days (SE = 18), 95% CI = [503, 575] (where means falling outside each others’ 95% CIs are considered statistically different; e.g., Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
BackgroundStudying Early Decision Making with Progressive Bar Charts
Patil, A., Richer, G., Jermaine, C., Moritz, D., & Fekete, J. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2022.3209426 · Cited by 11
“…have low uncertainty or variance, and (b) the estimates have stabilized over time. x % confidence intervals (CI) for an estimate give a range of values that is x % likely to contain the ground-truth value [14], taking into account the estimate’s variance and number of contributing data points.”
BackgroundVenkat, S. N., Yu, X., Liu, J., Wegmueller, J., Jimenez, J. C., Barcelos, E. I., Aung, H. H., Li, X., Jaubert, J., French, R. H., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Energy Research · doi:10.3389/fenrg.2023.1127796 · Cited by 11
“Lamination process plays an important role in the quality, reliability, and longevity of PV modules as validated from previous studies Davis et al. (2016); Schneller et al.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialStatistical applications in two leading educational administration journals
Byrd, J. K., & Eddy, C. M. (2009) · Journal of Educational Administration · doi:10.1108/09578230910967473 · Cited by 11
Identification and definition of lexically ambiguous words in statistics by tutors and students
Richardson, A., Dunn, P. K., & Hutchins, R. (2013) · International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/0020739x.2013.830781 · Cited by 11
National Trends in Indicators of a Medical Home for Children
Stevens, G. D., & Kim, A. Y. (2015) · Maternal and Child Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10995-015-1902-z · Cited by 11
“This approach is widely used and highly conservative [26, 27], meaning that non-overlapping confidence intervals are a very strict test of significance.”
An extension of within-subject confidence intervals to models with crossed random effects
Politzer‐Ahles, S. (2017) · The Quantitative Methods for Psychology · doi:10.20982/tqmp.13.1.p075 · Cited by 11
“Instead, as noted by Cumming and Finch (2005), as long as each group is n > 10 and the two groups have similar variance, then the two means can be roughly inferred to differ at about α = .05 if the overlap between the two confidence intervals is about 58% of the margin of error (MoE; i.e., half the…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTijmstra, J. (2018) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-018-1447-4 · Cited by 11
“…for the evaluation of scientific theories (Gigerenzer &Murray, 1987; Gigerenzer, 1993, 2004), with alternatives such as using confidence intervals (Cumming & Finch, 2005; Fidler & Loftus, 2009; Cumming, 2014) or Bayesian approaches (Wagenmakers, 2007) being proposed as more informative and more…”
Changing Epistemological Beliefs with Nature of Science Implementations
Johnson, K. A., & Willoughby, S. (2018) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.14.010110 · Cited by 10
Juang, L. P., Shen, Y., Costigan, C. L., & Hou, Y. (2018) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579418001128 · Cited by 13
“However, TVEM does not provide simultaneous CIs across the entire period of time (Lanza et al., 2014), and as such, comparison of CIs across time for significance testing is not appropriate (Cumming & Finch, 2001, 2005).”
BackgroundSpecificity of metabolic colorectal cancer biomarkers in serum through effect size
Giovanni, N. D., Meuwis, M., Louis, E., & Focant, J. (2020) · Metabolomics · doi:10.1007/s11306-020-01707-w · Cited by 10
Becker, O. A., & Loter, K. (2020) · European Sociological Review · doi:10.1093/esr/jcaa063 · Cited by 11
Bertrand-Charette, M., Jeffrey‐Gauthier, R., Roy, J., & Bouyer, L. J. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.762450 · Cited by 11
“…two complementary analyses were performed; (1) evolution over time for the group data (Fortin et al., 2009; Bertrand-Charette et al., 2021) of the time course (Cumming and Finch, 2005); (2) multi-epochs (see below) for statistical comparisons (see Bertrand-Charette et al., for details).”
BackgroundMethodTen Statistics Commandments That Almost Never Should Be Broken
Knapp, T. R., & Brown, J. K. (2014) · Research in Nursing & Health · doi:10.1002/nur.21605 · Cited by 11
“See Cumming and Finch (2005) for guidelines regarding the proper use of confidence intervals.”
BackgroundOvercoming the Inverse Probability Fallacy
Kalinowski, P., Fidler, F. M., & Cumming, G. (2008) · Methodology · doi:10.1027/1614-2241.4.4.152 · Cited by 12
Self-citationThe adequacy of different robust statistical tests in comparing two independent groups
Peró, M., & Guàrdia‐Olmos, J. (2013) · Dipòsit Digital de la Universitat de Barcelona (Universitat de Barcelona) · Cited by 11
Fidler, F. M. (2006) · Cited by 11
Serrano, I., Delgado, J. J., & Llamazares, M. D. C. E. (2015) · Avances en Psicología Latinoamericana · doi:10.12804/apl34.1.2016.01 · Cited by 10
Bettering the Evaluation and Care of Health
Britt, H. C., Miller, G. C., Charles, J., Henderson, J., Bayram, C., Valenti, L., Harrison, C. M., Pan, Y., Zhang, C., Chambers, T., et al. (2011) · Cited by 11
Lobesia botrana Larvae Develop Faster in the Presence of Parasitoids
Vogelweith, F., Moret, Y., Thiéry, D., & Moreau, J. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0072568 · Cited by 11
“Significant differences among treatments were assessed by comparison of confidence intervals [16].”
BackgroundMETA-ANALYSIS: PICTURES THAT EXPLAIN HOW EXPERIMENTAL FINDINGS CAN BE INTEGRATED
Cumming, G. (2006) · Cited by 11
Self-citationDensity of marmosets in highly urbanised areas and the positive effect of arboreous vegetation
de Andrade, A. C. (2021) · Urban Ecosystems · doi:10.1007/s11252-021-01131-5 · Cited by 10
Cambrone, C., Jean-Pierre, A., Bezault, É., & Cézilly, F. (2023) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2023.1141072 · Cited by 10
“In order to compare and statistically assess the relative importance of explanatory variables and partial plots, we calculated 95% confidence interval (95%CI) by performing 1,000 independent bootstraps from the original dataset (Cumming and Finch, 2005).”
MethodGradual Structure Editing with Obligations
Moon, D., Blinn, A., & Omar, C. (2023) · IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing (VL/HCC) · doi:10.1109/vl-hcc57772.2023.00016 · Cited by 10
“…reading each task description and ending when they said they were ready to begin, minus any time spent on dialogue (e.g. to ask clarifying questions); task completion time was measured as starting when the administrator gave a cue to begin and ending when the participant said they were done.”
BackgroundLingelbach, K., Gado, S., Wirzberger, M., & Vukelić, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroergonomics · doi:10.3389/fnrgo.2023.1273810 · Cited by 11
A Left Attentional Bias in Chronic Neglect: A Case Study Using Temporal Order Judgments
Dove, M. E., Eskes, G. A., Klein, R. M., & Shore, D. I. (2007) · Neurocase · doi:10.1080/13554790601174146 · Cited by 10
Laursen, B. P., Dickson, D. J., Boivin, M., Bowker, J. C., Brendgen, M. R., & Rubin, K. H. (2021) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0001119 · Cited by 10
Lingelbach, K., Bui, M., Diederichs, F., & Vukelić, M. (2021) · Conference proceedings/Conference proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics · doi:10.1109/smc52423.2021.9658662 · Cited by 10
“No overlap between the CIs of these distributions with those of the dummy classifier indicates a strong statistical significance and a partial overlap without including the mean a moderate statistical significance of p .05 [35].”
BackgroundFindings From an Empirical Exploration of Evaluators’ Values
LaVelle, J. M., Stephenson, C. L., Donaldson, S. I., & Hackett, J. D. (2022) · American Journal of Evaluation · doi:10.1177/10982140211046537 · Cited by 10
“We used con fi dence intervals to inform our interpretation of the data because they are better at estimation about the population (see Cumming, 2014; Cumming & Finch, 2005; Lindsay, 2015) and lead to a better understanding about meaningful (i.e., practical) inferences in the data.”
MethodBat winter foraging habitat use in working forests: a multispecies spatial occupancy approach
Perea, S., Fandos, G., Larsen-Gray, A., Greene, D., Chandler, R., & Castleberry, S. (2023) · Animal Conservation · doi:10.1111/acv.12924 · Cited by 10
“However, we also considered covariates as biologically meaningful if estimated 75% BCIs did not overlap zero, although the 95% BCIs overlapped zero (Cumming & Finch, 2005; Nakagawa & Cuthill, 2007; Tilker et al ., 2020).”
Visual search for expressions and anti-expressions
Skinner, A., & Benton, C. P. (2012) · Visual Cognition · doi:10.1080/13506285.2012.743495 · Cited by 10
“From consideration of the 95% confidence intervals (Cumming & Finch, 2005), anti-happiness was categorized as sadness (69% of responses) more than any other emotion (pB.01), with a minority of responses for fear (20%).”
BackgroundWalck, J. L., Karlsson, L. M., Milberg, P., Hidayati, S. N., & Kondo, T. (2012) · AoB Plants · doi:10.1093/aobpla/pls007 · Cited by 10
“This approach, as opposed to testing specific null hypotheses, allows the presentation of the magnitude of effect size as well as the precision of the estimate for this magnitude (Cumming and Finch 2005; Nakagawa and Cuthill 2007).”
MethodTaramopoulos, A., & Psillos, D. K. (2019) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-019-09793-9 · Cited by 11
“No overlap between compared BCa confidence intervals implies that the means come from different populations and are significantly different at the p 0.01 significance level (Cumming and Finch 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialSimple signals indicate which period of the annual cycle drives declines in seasonal populations
Burant, J. B., Betini, G. S., & Norris, D. R. (2019) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1111/ele.13393 · Cited by 8
“Effect size estimates were taken from the posterior distribution of model parameters, and 95 percent credible intervals (CI) around the means (b) were made based on the 1000 samples from the model © 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd/CNRS simulations (Cumming & Finch 2005).”
MethodKey Challenges and Some Guidance on Using Strong Quantitative Methodology in Education Research
Henson, R. K., Stewart, G., & Bedford, L. A. (2020) · Journal of Urban Mathematics Education · doi:10.21423/jume-v13i2a382 · Cited by 14
“Along with other meta-analytic considerations (see Cumming & Finch, 2005; Quintana & Minami, 2006), Henson (2006) suggested reporting confidence intervals around obtained effects (see also Thompson, 2002).”
BackgroundButler, R. C. (2021) · Annals of Applied Biology · doi:10.1111/aab.12734 · Cited by 10
Metadata
- Authors
- Cumming, G., & Finch, S.
- Affiliations
- La Trobe University (AU)
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2005
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 170-180
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2005534705
- Cited by
- 1,449
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 62 · 2025: 66 · 2024: 74 · 2023: 92 · 2022: 102 · 2021: 110 · 2020: 92 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 80 · 2017: 82 · 2016: 76 · 2015: 89 · 2014: 63 · 2013: 59 · 2012: 48
- FWCI
- 39.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistics Education and Methodologies
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
- Keywords
- confidence intervals, error bars, statistical significance testing, interval estimation, scholarly communication
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Confidence Intervals
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
