Cited by 1,449Statistical Methods and Bayesian InferenceStatistics Education and MethodologiesMeta-analysis and systematic reviews

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 60 of the 60 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Inference by Eye: Confidence Intervals and How to Read Pictures of Data.

Cumming, Geoff, Finch, Sue·2005·American Psychologist

DOI 10.1037/0003-066x.60.2.170

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Wider use in psychology of confidence intervals (CIs), especially as error bars in figures, is a desirable development. However, psychologists seldom use CIs and may not understand them well. The authors discuss the interpretation of figures with error bars and analyze the relationship between CIs and statistical significance testing. They propose 7 rules of eye to guide the inferential use of figures with error bars. These include general principles: Seek bars that relate directly to effects of interest, be sensitive to experimental design, and interpret the intervals. They also include guidelines for inferential interpretation of the overlap of CIs on independent group means. Wider use of interval estimation in psychology has the potential to improve research communication substantially.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0003-066x.60.2.170

Cites

60 of 60 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Methods of Meta-Analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (2015) · doi:10.4135/9781483398105 · Cited by 5,542
An Approximate Distribution of Estimates of Variance Components
Satterthwaite, F. E. (1946) · Biometrics Bulletin · doi:10.2307/3002019 · Cited by 4,373
The earth is round (p < .05).
Cohen, J. (1994) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.49.12.997 · Cited by 4,003
The Handbook of Research Synthesis.
Howel, D., Cooper, H., & Hedges, L. V. (1995) · Biometrics · doi:10.2307/2533295 · Cited by 3,657
Methods of Meta-Analysis
Hunter, J., & Schmidt, F. (2004) · doi:10.4135/9781412985031 · Cited by 3,023
Statistical methods in psychology journals: Guidelines and explanations.
Wilkinson, L., & Task Force on Statistical Inference (1999) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.54.8.594 · Cited by 2,791
Variations of Box Plots
Mcgill, R., Tukey, J. W., & Larsen, W. A. (1978) · The American Statistician · doi:10.1080/00031305.1978.10479236 · Cited by 2,618
Using confidence intervals in within-subject designs
Loftus, G. R., & Masson, M. E. J. (1994) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03210951 · Cited by 2,433
Statistics for the social sciences
Hays, W. L. (1973) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,081
Randomization Tests
Edgington, E. S., Edgington, E., & Onghena, P. (1964) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1002/0471667196.ess2169 · Cited by 2,052

Show all 59 references

Research works printed but not linked: 6

2001, Publication manual of the American Psychological Association
10.1177/00131640121971374 · DOI · Paper page
10.1177/00131640121971383 · DOI
Light, 1994, The visual presentation and interpretation of meta-analysis., 439
Smithson, 2002, Confidence intervals.
Steiger, 1997, Noncentrality interval estimation and the evaluation of statistical models., 221

Sorted by citations

Items 301–400 of 1,000

Meditation programs for veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: Aggregate findings from a multi-site evaluation.
Heffner, K. L., Crean, H. F., & Kemp, J. E. (2016) · Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy · doi:10.1037/tra0000106 · Cited by 52
Prediction Interval: What to Expect When You’re Expecting … A Replication
Spence, J. R., & Stanley, D. J. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0162874 · Cited by 52
Decision Making through Integration of Sensory Evidence at Prolonged Timescales
Waskom, M., & Kiani, R. (2018) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.10.021 · Cited by 52
Confidence Intervals: Better Answers to Better Questions
Cumming, G., & Fidler, F. (2009) · Zeitschrift für Psychologie / Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1027/0044-3409.217.1.15 · Cited by 83
Self-citation
Estimating the incidence of abortion: a comparison of five approaches in Ghana
Keogh, S. C., Otupiri, E., Chiu, D. W., Polis, C. B., Hussain, R., Bell, S. O., Nakua, E. K., & Larsen-Reindorf, R. E. (2020) · BMJ Global Health · doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2019-002129 · Cited by 51
“25 For direct reporting and the confidante method, we first calculated annual abortion rates for each of the past”
The impact of social-emotional learning: A meta-analysis in China
Chen, H., & Yu, Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1040522 · Cited by 51
“We used the overlapping CIs (Cumming and Finch, 2005) to determine whether the mean ESs from different studies differed significantly.”
Method
Reptiles in restored agricultural landscapes: the value of linear strips, patches and habitat condition
Jellinek, S., Parris, K. M., Mccarthy, M. A., Wintle, B. A., & Driscoll, D. A. (2014) · Animal Conservation · doi:10.1111/acv.12121 · Cited by 51
“Independent variables were considered to display ‘some evidence’ of a difference if the proportion of CI overlap was no more than half the average length of the two overlapping arms (P < 0.05; Cumming & Finch, 2005), and the two overlapping arms did not differ in length by more than a factor of two.”
BackgroundInfluential
Longitudinal changes in knee kinematics and moments following knee arthroplasty: A systematic review
Sosdian, L., Dobson, F., Wrigley, T. V., Paterson, K. L., Bennell, K. L., Dowsey, M. M., Choong, P., Allison, K., & Hinman, R. S. (2014) · The Knee · doi:10.1016/j.knee.2014.09.009 · Cited by 50
How Nonrecidivism Affects Predictive Accuracy
Hilton, N., & Harris, G. T. (2009) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260508316478 · Cited by 38
“%) does not include 0.50 (i.e., zero association with recidivism) and statistically different from another ROC area if its confidence interval does not include the other value (see Cumming & Finch, 2005, on drawing inferences from confidence intervals).”
BackgroundInfluential
Making Prisoners Accountable
Gendreau, P., Listwan, S. J., Kuhns, J. B., & Exum, M. L. (2014) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854814540288 · Cited by 52
Influencing the “People Who Count”
Gendreau, P., & Smith, P. (2007) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854807307025 · Cited by 43
“The two we prefer are: (1) the CI is a range of plausible values for µ; and (2) substantive interpretation of the values anywhere in the interval, with reference to its upper and lower limits and the mean, should be undertaken (Cumming & Finch, 2005, pp. 174-175).”
Background
Health-related quality of life in transgender adolescents: Associations with body image and emotional and behavioral problems
Röder, M., Barkmann, C., Richter‐Appelt, H., Schulte‐Markwort, M., Ravens‐Sieberer, U., & Becker-Hébly, I. (2018) · International Journal of Transgenderism · doi:10.1080/15532739.2018.1425649 · Cited by 51
“According to Cumming and Finch (2005), confidence intervals that do not overlap can be interpreted as significant on an alpha level of p .01.”
Background
Phage co-transport with hyphal-riding bacteria fuels bacterial invasion in a water-unsaturated microbial model system
You, X., Kallies, R., Kühn, I., Schmidt, M., Harms, H., Chatzinotas, A., & Wick, L. Y. (2021) · The ISME Journal · doi:10.1038/s41396-021-01155-x · Cited by 51
“When the 95CIs of two conditions (n ≥ 5) do not overlap, it indicates a statistical difference between these two conditions [42].”
Background
Self-esteem across adulthood: the role of resources
Wagner, J., Lang, F. R., Neyer, F. J., & Wagner, G. G. (2013) · European Journal of Ageing · doi:10.1007/s10433-013-0299-z · Cited by 59
“To compare effects across young and late adulthood, we used confidence intervals of unstandardized estimates following the guidelines of Cumming and Finch (2005). Comparisons suggest that, irrespective of age-specific effects, confidence bands of all but one resource showed substantial overlap.”
Method
The effects of fine-scale substratum roughness on diatom community structure in estuarine biofilms
Sweat, L. H., & Johnson, K. B. (2013) · Biofouling · doi:10.1080/08927014.2013.811492 · Cited by 50
“If the confidence interval of the non-zero mean did not encompass zero, the two treatments were considered statistically different from one another (p< 0.05; Cumming & Finch 2005).”
BackgroundInfluential
Spatial and temporal functional changes in alpine summit vegetation are driven by increases in shrubs and graminoids
Venn, S., Pickering, C. M., & Green, K. (2014) · AoB Plants · doi:10.1093/aobpla/plu008 · Cited by 50
“Temporal change across the summits in CTWM was measured as the per cent difference between mean values between 2004 and 2011, and by examining the overlap of 95 % confidence intervals from a normal distribution of the data across the three spatial scales (Cumming and Finch 2005).”
Method
Systematic review of the psychometric properties of transphobia scales
Morrison, M. A., Bishop, C., Gazzola, S. B., McCutcheon, J., Parker, K., & Morrison, T. G. (2017) · International Journal of Transgenderism · doi:10.1080/15532739.2017.1332535 · Cited by 59
Cerium dioxide nanoparticles can interfere with the associated cellular mechanistic response to diesel exhaust exposure
Steiner, S., Mueller, L., Popovicheva, O., Raemy, D. O., Czerwiński, J., Comte, P., Mayer, A. C. R., Gehr, P., Rothen‐Rutishauser, B., & Clift, M. J. D. (2012) · Toxicology Letters · doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2012.08.026 · Cited by 49
EdWordle: Consistency-Preserving Word Cloud Editing
Wang, Y.-H., Chu, X., Bao, C., Zhu, L., Deussen, O., Chen, B.-Q., & Sedlmair, M. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2017.2745859 · Cited by 59
“Cumming and Finch offer guidance on how to interpret statistical tests using confidence intervals (CI) [13].”
Background
Drug‐Free, Nonsurgical Reduction of Intraocular Pressure for Four Months after Suprachoroidal Injection of Hyaluronic Acid Hydrogel
Chae, J. J., Jung, J. H., Zhu, W., Gerberich, B. G., Fard, M. R. B., Grossniklaus, H. E., Ethier, C. R., & Prausnitz, M. R. (2020) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.202001908 · Cited by 49
From Statistical Significance to Effect Estimation: Statistical Reform in Psychology, Medicine and EcologyPreprint
Fidler, F. M. (2018) · Thesis Commons (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31237/osf.io/7xdpq · Cited by 48
Open Science: What, Why, and HowPreprint
Spellman, B., Gilbert, E. A., & Corker, K. S. (2017) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ak6jr · Cited by 50
Effect of long-term intranasal oxytocin on sexual dysfunction in premenopausal and postmenopausal women: a randomized trial
Muin, D. A., Wolzt, M., Marculescu, R., Sheikh Rezaei, S., Salama, M., Fuchs, C., Luger, A., Bragagna, E., Litschauer, B., & Bayerle-Eder, M. (2015) · Fertility and Sterility · doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.06.010 · Cited by 48
Placing joy, surprise and sadness in space: a cross-linguistic study
Marmolejo‐Ramos, F., Correa, J. C., Sakarkar, G., Ngo, G., Fernández, S. R., Butcher, N. L., & Yamada, Y. (2016) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-016-0787-9 · Cited by 50
Ectomycorrhizal community responses to intensive forest management: thinning alters impacts of fertilization
Teste, F. P., Lieffers, V. J., & Strelkov, S. E. (2012) · Plant and Soil · doi:10.1007/s11104-012-1231-6 · Cited by 48
“(Cumming and Finch 2005), but we chose the more conservative threshold.”
Background
Revisiting confidence intervals for repeated measures designs
Hollands, J. G., & Jarmasz, J. (2010) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/pbr.17.1.135 · Cited by 48
“Indeed, as Cumming and Finch (2005) noted, it is unclear how well CIs can be effectively used by researchers to understand effects within complex experimental designs.”
Background
Attention problems, phonological short-term memory, and visuospatial short-term memory: Differential effects on near- and long-term scholastic achievement
Sarver, D. E., Rapport, M. D., Kofler, M. J., Scanlan, S. W., Raiker, J. S., Altro, T. A., & Bolden, J. (2012) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.09.010 · Cited by 48
Self-report of illicit benzodiazepine use on the Addiction Severity Index predicts treatment outcome.
Ghitza, U. E., Epstein, D., & Preston, K. (2008) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.04.003 · Cited by 46
“…BZD use and DSM-IV diagnoses for heroin dependence (Wald χ2=0.23, p>0.05; adjusted odds ratio=0.73; 95% confidence intervals: 0.21–2.60), or cocaine 1The overlap in confidence intervals is not inconsistent with the significant difference (Cumming and Finch, 2005; Wolfe and Hanley, 2002).”
BackgroundInfluential
STATISTICAL COGNITION: TOWARDS EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE IN STATISTICS AND STATISTICS EDUCATION
Marom, T., Fidler, F. M., & Cumming, G. (2008) · Statistics Education Research Journal · doi:10.52041/serj.v7i2.468 · Cited by 46
“Cumming and Finch (2005) described a number of rules of eye, intended as simple guidelines for interpretation of 95% CIs shown in figures.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Education and fertility decline in China during transitional times: A cohort approach
Piotrowski, M. P., & Tong, Y. (2015) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2015.10.001 · Cited by 47
Should weight-bearing activity be reduced during healing of plantar diabetic foot ulcers, even when using appropriate offloading devices?
Jarl, G., van Netten, J. J., Lazzarini, P. A., Crews, R. T., Najafi, B., & Mueller, M. J. (2021) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2021.108733 · Cited by 47
Assessing the Inequality of Early Child Development in China - A Population-Based Study
Zhang, Y., Kang, L., Zhao, J. H., Song, Y., Jiang, F., & Lu, C. (2021) · The Lancet Regional Health - Western Pacific · doi:10.1016/j.lanwpc.2021.100221 · Cited by 46
Rapid changes in corticospinal excitability during force field adaptation of human walking
Barthélemy, D., Alain, S., Grey, M. J., Nielsen, J. B., & Bouyer, L. J. (2012) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-011-2977-4 · Cited by 46
“…of 15 MEPs from a different condition falling outside of the range of values graphically presented by the 95% CI of the mean CTRL MEP points can be considered statistically significantly different at the P = 0.05 level (Loftus and Masson 1994; Masson and Loftus 2003; Cumming and Finch 2005).”
BackgroundInfluential
Accuracy assessment for mapping glacier flow velocity and detecting flow dynamics from ASTER satellite imagery: Tasman Glacier, New Zealand
Redpath, T. A. N., Sirguey, P., Fitzsimons, S. J., & Kääb, A. (2013) · Remote Sensing of Environment · doi:10.1016/j.rse.2013.02.008 · Cited by 46
“(Cumming & Finch, 2005), further strengthening the inferences of change significance.”
Background
Predictive validity of short term scar quality on final burn scar outcome using the Patient and Observer Scar Assessment Scale in patients with minor to moderate burn severity
Goei, H., van der Vlies, C. H., Tuinebreijer, W. E., van Zuijlen, P. P. M., Middelkoop, E., & van Baar, M. E. (2016) · Burns · doi:10.1016/j.burns.2016.10.012 · Cited by 46
Smaller is better (when sampling from the crowd within): Low memory-span individuals benefit more from multiple opportunities for estimation.
Hourihan, K. L., & Benjamin, A. S. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0019694 · Cited by 44
Which Nonvocal Musical Instrument Sounds Like the Human Voice? An Empirical Investigation
Schubert, E. (2018) · Empirical Studies of the Arts · doi:10.1177/0276237418763657 · Cited by 45
Frequency versus time lost measures of absenteeism: Is the voluntariness distinction an urban legend?
Johns, G., & Hajj, R. A. (2015) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2055 · Cited by 45
Psychiatric Problems and Trauma Exposure in Nondetained Delinquent and Nondelinquent Adolescents
Adams, Z. W., McCart, M. R., Zajac, K., Danielson, C. K., Sawyer, G. K., Saunders, B. E., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2012) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.749786 · Cited by 45
Utilization and Implications of the Static-99 in Practice
Storey, J. E., Watt, K., Jackson, K. J., & Hart, S. D. (2012) · Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1177/1079063211423943 · Cited by 45
“Visual inspection of proportions suggests those for the first three groups are very similar and their 95% CIs overlap considerably, although this approach has its limitations (e.g., Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
Background
EFFECTS OF EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL ATTENTIONAL MANIPULATIONS ON SECOND LANGUAGE GRAMMAR DEVELOPMENT
Issa, B. I., & Morgan‐Short, K. (2018) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s027226311800013x · Cited by 45
The tripartite model of intrinsic motivation in education: A 30‐year retrospective and meta‐analysis
Howard, J. L., Chong, J. X. Y., & Bureau, J. S. (2020) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12570 · Cited by 56
“Specifically, 95% confidence intervals that overlapped less than 50% were indicative of meaningful differences (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
Summary Plots With Adjusted Error Bars: The superb Framework With an Implementation in R
Cousineau, D., Goulet, M.-A., & Harding, B. (2021) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/25152459211035109 · Cited by 45
“Past authors have published heuristics to handle some of these methodological considerations (beginning with Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
Background
Depression alters the circadian pattern of online activity
ten Thij, M., Bathina, K. C., Rutter, L. A., Lorenzo‐Luaces, L., van de Leemput, I. A., Scheffer, M., & Bollen, J. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-74314-3 · Cited by 43
Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in children: an epidemiological study based on the German Resuscitation Registry identifying modifiable factors for return of spontaneous circulation
Katzenschlager, S., Kelpanides, I. K., Ristau, P., Huck, M., Seewald, S., Brenner, S., Hoffmann, F., Wnent, J., Kramer‐Johansen, J., Tjelmeland, I. B. M., et al. (2023) · Critical Care · doi:10.1186/s13054-023-04630-3 · Cited by 44
“One confounder might be that bystanders who perform CCV are better trained and provide higher-quality CPR than those who provide chest compressions ‘only’.”
Influential
Cohen’s d needs to be readily interpretable: Comment on Shieh (2013)
Cumming, G. (2013) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-013-0392-4 · Cited by 44
“By contrast, inference about the difference requires s diff , the SD of the paired differences — whether for a paired t test or to calculate a CI on the difference (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Statistics: Reasoning on Uncertainty, and the Insignificance of Testing Null
Läärä, E. (2009) · Annales Zoologici Fennici · doi:10.5735/086.046.0206 · Cited by 44
“However, the precision in the estimated mean difference, concisely summarized in a confi dence interval of this very contrast, is inadequately captured in graphs showing only group-specifi c statistics, but would need to be directly illustrated in a more suitable way (Cumming & Finch 2005).”
Ecological Interface Design in the Nuclear Domain: An Empirical Evaluation of Ecological Displays for the Secondary Subsystems of a Boiling Water Reactor Plant Simulator
Lau, N. K. C., Jamieson, G. A., Skraaning, G., & Burns, C. M. (2008) · IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science · doi:10.1109/tns.2008.2005725 · Cited by 44
Marked dissociation of photopic and mesopic contrast sensitivity even in normal observers
Hertenstein, H., Bach, M., Gross, N. J., & Beisse, F. (2015) · Graefe s Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology · doi:10.1007/s00417-015-3020-4 · Cited by 44
Wie stark sind Führungskräfte psychisch gefährdet?
Zimber, A., Hentrich, S., Bockhoff, K., Wissing, C., & Petermann, F. (2015) · Zeitschrift für Gesundheitspsychologie · doi:10.1026/0943-8149/a000143 · Cited by 48
Trends in Fighting and Violence Among Adolescents in the United States, 2002–2014
Salas‐Wright, C. P., Nelson, E. J., Vaughn, M. G., González, J. M. R., & Córdova, D. (2017) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2017.303743 · Cited by 44
Impacts of pollution, fishing pressure, and reef rugosity on resource fish biomass in West Hawaii
Foo, S. A., Walsh, W. J., Lecky, J., Marcoux, S. D., & Asner, G. P. (2020) · Ecological Applications · doi:10.1002/eap.2213 · Cited by 44
“Nonoverlapping 95% CIs is an indication that biomass is significantly different between years (Smith 1997, Cumming and Finch 2005).”
Background
Personality differences on the Rorschach of dissociative identity disorder, borderline personality disorder, and psychotic inpatients.
Brand, B. L., Armstrong, J. G., Loewenstein, R. J., & McNary, S. W. (2009) · Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy · doi:10.1037/a0016561 · Cited by 45
“Confidence intervals allow easy visual comparison of group summary data; means with intervals that overlap no more than a quarter width can be considered significantly different at p .05 and intervals that abut one another reflect a mean difference significant at p .01 (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
Background
Clarifying and measuring filial concepts across five cultural groups
Jones, P. S., Lee, J. W., & Zhang, X. E. (2011) · Research in Nursing & Health · doi:10.1002/nur.20444 · Cited by 45
“Non-overlapping confidence intervals are a conservative test of the significance of a difference between parameters (Cumming & Finch, 2005; Schenker & Gentleman, 2001).”
Background
The Eight-Item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale in the English Longitudinal Study of Aging: Longitudinal and Gender Invariance, Sum Score Models, and External Associations
Schlechter, P., Ford, T. J., & Neufeld, S. (2022) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911221138930 · Cited by 43
“Because we aimed to investigate the differential effects of the two factors (depressed affect and somatic complaints), we calculated 95% confidence intervals around the point estimates (Cumming & Finch, 2005; Greenland et al., 2016).”
Method
A Network Approach to Bipolar Symptomatology in Patients with Different Course Types
Koenders, M. A., de Kleijn, R., Giltay, E. J., Elzinga, B. M., Spinhoven, P., & Spijker, A. T. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141420 · Cited by 46
“When overlap of CI errorbars is about less than 50% (based on visual inspection) these can be considered significantly different [30].”
Background
The Use of Confidence Intervals as a Meta-Analytic Lens to Summarize the Effects of Teacher Education Technology Courses on Preservice Teacher TPACK
Young, J., Young, J. L., & Hamilton, C. (2013) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2013.10782617 · Cited by 43
“According to Cumming and Finch (2005), the CI is a range that centers on M and extends for a distance w (width) on either side of M , where w is called the margin of error (p. 170).”
BackgroundMethod
The value of RCT evidence depends on the quality of statistical analysis.
Faulkner, C., Fidler, F., & Cumming, G. (2008) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.12.001 · Cited by 45
Self-citation
Research Methods, Design, and Statistics in Media Psychology
Prot, S., & Anderson, C. A. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195398809.013.0007 · Cited by 44
Theory Testing Using Quantitative Predictions of Effect Size
Velicer, W. F., Cumming, G., Fava, J. L., Rossi, J. S., Prochaska, J. O., & Johnson, J. L. (2008) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2008.00348.x · Cited by 43
Self-citation
Not social transition status, but peer relations and family functioning predict psychological functioning in a German clinical sample of children with Gender Dysphoria
Sievert, E. D. C., Schweizer, K., Barkmann, C., Fahrenkrug, S., & Becker-Hébly, I. (2020) · Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/1359104520964530 · Cited by 43
“If confidence intervals do not include the mean of the norm T-distribution (M = 50), it can be assumed that they significantly differ from the birth-assigned sex and age equivalent reference group (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
Background
Putting Research in Context: Understanding Confidence Intervals from One or More Studies
Finch, S. J., & Cumming, G. (2008) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsn118 · Cited by 43
“Cumming and Finch (2005) discuss some principles for interpreting overlapping CIs in some simple situations.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Cognitive training in elite soccer players: evidence of narrow, but not broad transfer to visual and executive function
Scharfen, H., & Memmert, D. (2021) · German Journal of Exercise and Sport Research · doi:10.1007/s12662-020-00699-y · Cited by 48
Overweight and obesity in non-pregnant women of childbearing age in South Africa: subgroup regression analyses of survey data from 1998 to 2017
Nglazi, M. D., & Ataguba, J. E.-O. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-12601-6 · Cited by 42
“Also, an inferential assessment using simple t-statistics was used to assess if the prevalence of overweight or obesity across the key variables (except for smoking status) was statistically different between periods [55].”
Method
Childhood Reports of Food Neglect and Impulse Control Problems and Violence in Adulthood
Vaughn, M. G., Salas‐Wright, C. P., Naeger, S., Huang, J. X., & Piquero, A. R. (2016) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph13040389 · Cited by 44
“In keeping with previous research, we examined the overlapping/no overlapping confidence intervals in order to test the differences in the magnitude effects across gender and race/ethnicity [56] With categorical data, this approach is preferable to more traditional (i.”
Method
Housing vacancy and urban growth: explaining changes in long-term vacancy after the US foreclosure crisis
Wang, K., & Immergluck, D. (2018) · Journal of Housing and the Built Environment · doi:10.1007/s10901-018-9636-z · Cited by 42
Beyond Sharing Unpleasant Affect—Evidence for Pain-Specific Opioidergic Modulation of Empathy for Pain
Rütgen, M., Wirth, E.-M., Riečanský, I., Hummer, A., Windischberger, C., Petrović, P., Silani, G., & Lamm, C. (2020) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaa385 · Cited by 40
“Similarity of placebo effect sizes on pain and touch (both self and other) was tested via inspection of Cohen’s d confidence intervals (Cumming and Finch 2005).”
Oculomotor task switching: alternating from a nonstandard to a standard response yields the unidirectional prosaccade switch-cost
Weiler, J., & Heath, M. D. (2014) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00352.2014 · Cited by 42
Explicit versus actionable knowledge: The influence of explaining graphical conventions on interpretation of hurricane forecast visualizations.
Boone, A. P., Gunalp, P., & Hegarty, M. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000166 · Cited by 47
Reasons High School Students Use Marijuana: Prevalence and Correlations With Use Across Four Decades
Patrick, M. E., Evans‐Polce, R. J., Kloska, D. D., & Maggs, J. L. (2019) · Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs · doi:10.15288/jsad.2019.80.15 · Cited by 47
“Intercept and slope coefficients are estimated as continuous functions of time, and figures are used to represent the coefficient functions, along with pointwise 95% confidence intervals, across time (Cumming & Finch, 2005; Greenland et al., 2016).”
Method
Hazardous impact of vinasse from distilled winemaking by-products in terrestrial plants and aquatic organisms
Sousa, R. M. O. F., Amaral, C., Fernandes, J., Fraga, I., Semitela, S., Braga, F. G., Coimbra, A. M., Dias, A. A., Bezerra, R. M. F., & Sampaio, A. (2019) · Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety · doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.109493 · Cited by 41
Are you prepared for the next storm? Developing social norms messages to motivate community members to perform disaster risk mitigation behaviors
Lim, J. R., Liu, B. F., & Seate, A. A. (2022) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/risa.13957 · Cited by 40
“Means with different letters were significantly different based on proportion overlap between the 95% confidence intervals of the estimated means and the average margin of error at p .05 (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluential
The New Statistics: A How‐To Guide
Cumming, G. (2013) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1111/ap.12018 · Cited by 46
Self-citation
The Hebb repetition effect in simple and complex memory span
Oberauer, K., Jones, T., & Lewandowsky, S. (2015) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-015-0512-8 · Cited by 41
From a conservative to a liberal welfare state: Decomposing changes in income-related health inequalities in Germany, 1994–2011
Siegel, M., Vogt, V., & Sundmacher, L. (2014) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.02.022 · Cited by 40
The Essential Work of Fracture of Thermoplastic Orthodontic Retainer Materials
Pascual, A. L., Beeman, C. S., Hicks, E. P., Bush, H., & Mitchell, R. J. (2010) · The Angle Orthodontist · doi:10.2319/042809-232.1 · Cited by 40
“05 results.(14,15) Given the exploratory nature”
The receptor for advanced glycation end products and risk of peripheral arterial disease, amputation or death in type 2 diabetes: a population-based cohort study
Malmstedt, J., Kärvestedt, L., Swedenborg, J., & Brismar, K. (2015) · Cardiovascular Diabetology · doi:10.1186/s12933-015-0257-5 · Cited by 40
“S100A12 (ng/mL) 56 [41–72] 78 [37–119] 44 [33–55]”
The case for interactive data exploration accelerators (IDEAs)
Crotty, A., Galakatos, A., Zgraggen, E., Binnig, C., & Kraska, T. (2016) · Workshop on Human-In-the-Loop Data Analytics (HILDA) · doi:10.1145/2939502.2939513 · Cited by 40
“Furthermore, the human eye has limitations and humans are particularly bad at understanding the impact of error bars [9].”
Background
Within-Individual Canalization Contributes to Age-Related Increases in Trait Repeatability: A Longitudinal Experiment in Red Knots
Kok, E. M. A., Burant, J. B., Dekinga, A., Manche, P., Saintonge, D., Piersma, T., & Mathot, K. J. (2019) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/704593 · Cited by 40
“With this CI, we indicate that we are 95% confident that our CI includes the actual effect size (Cumming and Finch 2005).”
BackgroundMethod
Using Propensity Score Analysis of Survey Data to Estimate Population Average Treatment Effects: A Case Study Comparing Different Methods
Dong, N., Stuart, E. A., Lenis, D., & Nguyen, T. Q. (2020) · Evaluation Review · doi:10.1177/0193841x20938497 · Cited by 46
“Conventional confidence intervals represent the uncertainty associated with each effect estimate individually and can 96 Evaluation Review 44(1) overlap even when there is a statistically significant difference between the estimates (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
Background
Deferring to Clarity, Parsimony, and Evidence in Reply to Ward, Yates, and Willis
Wormith, J. S., Gendreau, P., & Bonta, J. L. (2011) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854811426087 · Cited by 40
“The CIs documented above are a crucial piece of evidence that demonstrates the strength of the RNR findings.”
MethodInfluential
Nutrient Content Claims: How They Impact Perceived Healthfulness of Fortified Snack Foods and the Moderating Effects of Nutrition Facts Labels
Iles, I. A., Nan, X., & Verrill, L. A. (2017) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2017.1351277 · Cited by 39
“As such, even though the CIs overlapped, it is still possible for the two means to be statistically different, as per Cumming and Finch (2005). referral might have increased participants’ likelihood to view the NFL. Claims 2 and 3 both stated that the product contained “as much Calcium and Vitamin…”
Background
Turning the other cheek: the viewpoint dependence of facial expression after-effects
Benton, C. P., Etchells, P. J., Porter, G., Clark, A. P., Penton‐Voak, I. S., & Nikolov, S. G. (2007) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.0473 · Cited by 39
“0.01 (Cumming & Finch 2005).”
Influential
The influence of different graphical displays on nonexpert decision making under uncertainty.
Padilla, L., Hansen, G., Ruginski, I. T., Kramer, H., Thompson, W. B., & Creem-Regehr, S. H. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000037 · Cited by 39
The statistical crisis in science: how is it relevant to clinical neuropsychology?
Gelman, A., & Geurts, H. M. (2017) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2016.1277557 · Cited by 40
“However, a graphical depiction of reliability intervals, for example, might help to interpret reported p -values (see e.g. Cumming & Finch, 2005), even if it will not solve the afore-mentioned problems of the overinterpretation of statistical significance.”
Method
Normalization of zero-inflated data: An empirical analysis of a new indicator family and its use with altmetrics data
Bornmann, L., & Haunschild, R. (2018) · Journal of Informetrics · doi:10.1016/j.joi.2018.01.010 · Cited by 39
Moving the United States Medical Licensing Examination Step 1 After Core Clerkships: An Outcomes Analysis
Jurich, D. P., Daniel, M. M., Paniagua, M. A., Fleming, A., Harnik, V., Pock, A. R., Sein, A. S., Barone, M., & Santen, S. A. (2018) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000002458 · Cited by 39
Seasonal dynamics of non-structural carbon pools and their relationship to growth in two boreal conifer tree species
Schoonmaker, A., Hillabrand, R., Lieffers, V. J., Chow, P. S., & Landhäusser, S. M. (2021) · Tree Physiology · doi:10.1093/treephys/tpab013 · Cited by 39
Happiness and age in European adults: The moderating role of gross domestic product per capita.
Morgan, J. R., Robinson, O. C., & Thompson, T. (2015) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000034 · Cited by 41
Reform of statistical inference in psychology: The case ofMemory & Cognition
Finch, S. J., Cumming, G., Williams, J., Palmer, L., Griffith, E., Alders, C., Anderson, J. L., & Goodman, O. (2004) · Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers · doi:10.3758/bf03195577 · Cited by 39
Self-citation
High Mercury Concentrations Reflect Trophic Ecology of Three Deep-Water Chondrichthyans
Newman, M. C., Xu, X., Cotton, C., & Tom, K. R. (2010) · Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology · doi:10.1007/s00244-010-9584-4 · Cited by 39
The geography of references in elite articles: Which countries contribute to the archives of knowledge?
Bornmann, L., Wagner, C., & Leydesdorff, L. (2018) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0194805 · Cited by 39
Subliminal emotion perception in brain imaging: findings, issues, and recommendations
Wiens, S. (2006) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/s0079-6123(06)56006-6 · Cited by 39
“Although variability among participants can be evaluated in terms of confidence intervals (Cumming and Finch, 2005) and correlations with variables of interest, this is not commonly discussed in research.”
Background
Phonological factors of Spanish/English word internal code-switching
Stefanich, S., & Cabrelli, J. (2018) · Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone linguistics · doi:10.1075/ihll.19.08ste · Cited by 38
Variables are valuable: making a case for deductive modeling
Couto, D. T., & Lorenz, D. (2021) · Linguistics · doi:10.1515/ling-2019-0050 · Cited by 38
Do delayed judgements of learning reduce metamemory illusions? A meta-analysis
Luna, K., Мартин-Луенго, Б., & Albuquerque, P. B. (2017) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2017.1343362 · Cited by 43
Genetic Vulnerability to Experiencing Child Maltreatment
Pezzoli, P., Antfolk, J., Hatoum, A. S., & Santtila, P. O. (2019) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2019.00852 · Cited by 40
“No overlap or CIs just touching were considered indicative of a significant difference (p 0.01, Cumming and Finch, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluential
Federated learning for violence incident prediction in a simulated cross-institutional psychiatric setting
Borger, T., Mosteiro, P. J., Kaya, H., Rijcken, E., Salah, A. A., Scheepers, F. E., & Spruit, M. R. (2022) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2022.116720 · Cited by 38
Characterizing the Mathematics Anxiety Literature Using Confidence Intervals as a Literature Review Mechanism
Zientek, L., Yetkiner, Z. E., & Thompson, B. (2010) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220670903383093 · Cited by 37
“Indeed, Cumming and Finch (2005) suggested a variety of ways of thinking about CIs, none of which involved p values.”
Background
Interpersonal Victimization, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Change in Adolescent Substance Use Prevalence Over a Ten-Year Period
McCart, M. R., Zajac, K., Danielson, C. K., Strachan, M. K., Ruggiero, K. J., Smith, D. W., Saunders, B. E., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2011) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2011.533411 · Cited by 38
“01 if their 95% confidence intervals do not overlap (Cumming & Finch, 2005 ).”
Background

Authors: Cumming, G., & Finch, S.
Affiliations: La Trobe University (AU)
ORCID: Cumming, Geoff
Finch, Sue
Venue: American Psychologist
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2005
Volume: 60
Issue: 2
Pages: 170-180
ISSN: 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
1935-990X
DOI: 10.1037/0003-066x.60.2.170
OpenAlex: W2005534705
Cited by: 1,449
References: 59
Citations by year: 2026: 62 · 2025: 66 · 2024: 74 · 2023: 92 · 2022: 102 · 2021: 110 · 2020: 92 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 80 · 2017: 82 · 2016: 76 · 2015: 89 · 2014: 63 · 2013: 59 · 2012: 48
FWCI: 39.36
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistics Education and Methodologies
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
Keywords: confidence intervals, error bars, statistical significance testing, interval estimation, scholarly communication
MeSH terms: Humans, Confidence Intervals

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Inference by Eye: Confidence Intervals and How to Read Pictures of Data.

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks