Cited by 1,449Statistical Methods and Bayesian InferenceStatistics Education and MethodologiesMeta-analysis and systematic reviews

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 60 of the 60 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Inference by Eye: Confidence Intervals and How to Read Pictures of Data.

Cumming, Geoff, Finch, Sue·2005·American Psychologist

DOI 10.1037/0003-066x.60.2.170

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Wider use in psychology of confidence intervals (CIs), especially as error bars in figures, is a desirable development. However, psychologists seldom use CIs and may not understand them well. The authors discuss the interpretation of figures with error bars and analyze the relationship between CIs and statistical significance testing. They propose 7 rules of eye to guide the inferential use of figures with error bars. These include general principles: Seek bars that relate directly to effects of interest, be sensitive to experimental design, and interpret the intervals. They also include guidelines for inferential interpretation of the overlap of CIs on independent group means. Wider use of interval estimation in psychology has the potential to improve research communication substantially.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0003-066x.60.2.170

Cites

60 of 60 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Methods of Meta-Analysis: Correcting Error and Bias in Research Findings
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (2015) · doi:10.4135/9781483398105 · Cited by 5,542
An Approximate Distribution of Estimates of Variance Components
Satterthwaite, F. E. (1946) · Biometrics Bulletin · doi:10.2307/3002019 · Cited by 4,373
The earth is round (p < .05).
Cohen, J. (1994) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.49.12.997 · Cited by 4,003
The Handbook of Research Synthesis.
Howel, D., Cooper, H., & Hedges, L. V. (1995) · Biometrics · doi:10.2307/2533295 · Cited by 3,657
Methods of Meta-Analysis
Hunter, J., & Schmidt, F. (2004) · doi:10.4135/9781412985031 · Cited by 3,023
Statistical methods in psychology journals: Guidelines and explanations.
Wilkinson, L., & Task Force on Statistical Inference (1999) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.54.8.594 · Cited by 2,791
Variations of Box Plots
Mcgill, R., Tukey, J. W., & Larsen, W. A. (1978) · The American Statistician · doi:10.1080/00031305.1978.10479236 · Cited by 2,618
Using confidence intervals in within-subject designs
Loftus, G. R., & Masson, M. E. J. (1994) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03210951 · Cited by 2,433
Statistics for the social sciences
Hays, W. L. (1973) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,081
Randomization Tests
Edgington, E. S., Edgington, E., & Onghena, P. (1964) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1002/0471667196.ess2169 · Cited by 2,052

Show all 59 references

Research works printed but not linked: 6

2001, Publication manual of the American Psychological Association
10.1177/00131640121971374 · DOI · Paper page
10.1177/00131640121971383 · DOI
Light, 1994, The visual presentation and interpretation of meta-analysis., 439
Smithson, 2002, Confidence intervals.
Steiger, 1997, Noncentrality interval estimation and the evaluation of statistical models., 221

Sorted by citations

Items 801–900 of 1,000

Face processing still predicts reading ability: Evidence from developmental prosopagnosia. A reply to Gerlach and Starrfelt (2022)
Burns, E. J., & Bukach, C. M. (2022) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2022.06.008 · Cited by 10
Processing weights of chickens determined by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry: 1. Weight changes due to fasting, bleeding, and chilling
Martinez, D. A., Suesuttajit, N., Weil, J. T., Maharjan, P., Beitia, A., Hilton, K., Umberson, C., Scott, A., & Coon, C. N. (2022) · Animal - Open Space · doi:10.1016/j.anopes.2022.100024 · Cited by 10
Age-Associated ALU Element Instability in White Blood Cells Is Linked to Lower Survival in Elderly Adults: A Preliminary Cohort Study
Morgan, R. G., Venturelli, M., Gross, C., Tarperi, C., Schena, F. F., Reggiani, C., Naro, F., Pedrinolla, A., Monaco, L., Richardson, R. S., et al. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0169628 · Cited by 10
Developing and Validating a Risk Assessment Scale to Predict Inmate Placements in Administrative Segregation in the Correctional Service of Canada
Helmus, L. M. (2015) · Carleton University's Institutional Repository (MacOdrum Library, Carleton University) · doi:10.22215/etd/2015-10835 · Cited by 11
Creating sport environments for youth to thrive: understanding the mechanism to intentions to continue sport and subjective well-being
Kinoshita, K., MacIntosh, E., & Sato, S. (2024) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2023.2203699 · Cited by 10
“…support from parents on thriving (CI = [.07, .31]) in the model did not overlap, indicating that the impact of autonomy support from coaches on thriving was signi ﬁ cantly more in ﬂ uential than the e ﬀ ect of autonomy support from parents in the present sample (e.g., Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
Comparing treatment means: overlapping standard errors, overlapping confidence intervals, and tests of hypothesis
Wester, D. B. (2018) · Biometrics & Biostatistics International Journal · doi:10.15406/bbij.2018.07.00192 · Cited by 9
Red knots (Calidris canutus islandica) manage body mass with dieting and activity
Mathot, K. J., Kok, E. M. A., van den Hout, P. J., Dekinga, A., & Piersma, T. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Biology · doi:10.1242/jeb.231993 · Cited by 9
Does age matter? Initial treatment goals of older adults with major depression in outpatient cognitive behavioural therapy
Sittler, M. C., Lechner‐Meichsner, F., Wilz, G., & Kessler, E. (2021) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2646 · Cited by 9
Influence of the Coupling on the Hearing Outcome After Implantation of an Active Middle Ear Implant: Comparison of the Transmission Behavior in Temporal Bone Experiments With Clinical Data
Müller, C., Lailach, S., Bornitz, M., Lasurashvili, N., Eßinger, T. M., Neudert, M., & Zahnert, T. (2022) · Ear and Hearing · doi:10.1097/aud.0000000000001258 · Cited by 9
A comparison of two performance portability metrics
Marowka, A. (2023) · Concurrency and Computation Practice and Experience · doi:10.1002/cpe.7868 · Cited by 11
IOP Reduction in Nonhuman Primates by Microneedle Injection of Drug-Free Hydrogel to Expand the Suprachoroidal Space
Chung, Y. G., Fan, S., Gulati, V., Li, H., Gong, H., Toris, C. B., Prausnitz, M. R., & Ethier, C. R. (2024) · Translational Vision Science & Technology · doi:10.1167/tvst.13.10.14 · Cited by 10
“26,37 For experimental hypertensive eyes, the regression was fit between days 5 to 45 after injection, while for experimental normotensive eyes the regression was fit from days 5 to 39 post-injection.”
Alert, but not alarmed: Electoral disinformation and trust during the 2023 Australian voice to parliament referendum
Carson, A., Grömping, M., Gravelle, T. B., Jackman, S. D., & Phillips, J. B. (2024) · Policy & Internet · doi:10.1002/poi3.429 · Cited by 11
“Readers are reminded that overlapping con ﬁ dence intervals should not be interpreted as tests of differences between point estimates (Cumming & Finch, 2005; Payton et al., 2003; Schenker & Gentleman, 2001).”
Green leadership’s predictors and outcomes
Aycan, Z., Cinli, D., & Robertson, J. L. (2025) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-025-00418-0 · Cited by 9
“…about the strength of variables were based on effect sizes, if reported 9 , and standardized regressions grouped into strong, moderate and weak 10 ; conclusions about the strength of evidence were based on confidence intervals, if reported 11 , sample sizes 12 and methodological rigour 13 .”
Language models transmit behavioural traits through hidden signals in data
Cloud, A., Le, M. H., Chua, J., Betley, J., Sztyber, A., Mindermann, S., Hilton, J., Marks, S., & Evans, O. (2026) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-026-10319-8 · Cited by 146
“We note that non-overlapping 95% confidence intervals imply a statistically significant difference at P 0.01 for independent means 53 , providing a conservative lower bound for significance compared with paired tests.”
Influential
Warming Alters the Relationship Between Benthic Cover and Herbivores on Hawaiian Reefs
Foo, S. A., Teague, C. H., & Asner, G. P. (2022) · Frontiers in Marine Science · doi:10.3389/fmars.2022.787314 · Cited by 9
Tempered Expectations: A Tutorial for Calculating and Interpreting Prediction Intervals in the Context of Replications
Spence, J. R., & Stanley, D. J. (2024) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/25152459231217932 · Cited by 11
“If interpreted correctly, CIs can offer inferential information that is not available with p values (Belia et al., 2005; Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
Background
Scoring Correction for MMPI-2 Hs Scale with Patients Experiencing a Traumatic Brain Injury: A Test of Measurement Invariance
Alkemade, N., Bowden, S. C., & Salzman, L. (2014) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acu058 · Cited by 9
Form overshadows ‘opponent motion’ information in processing of biological motion from point light walker stimuli
Thirkettle, M., Scott‐Samuel, N. E., & Benton, C. P. (2009) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2009.10.021 · Cited by 9
“For ease of statistical inference, error bars represent 95% confidence intervals of the mean (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
An Argument Framework for the Application of Null Hypothesis Statistical Testing in Support of Research
Lemire, S. (2010) · Journal of Statistics Education · doi:10.1080/10691898.2010.11889492 · Cited by 8
“Elements of the Toulmin (1958) model of argument are used to illustrate the use of p values and Type I and Type II error rates in support of claims about statistical parameters and subject matter research constructs.”
BackgroundMethod
Delta-tilde interpretation of standard linear mixed model results
Brockhoff, P. B., Amorim, I. D. S., Kuznetsova, A., Bech, S., & de Lima, R. R. (2015) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2015.11.009 · Cited by 9
Cover Crop Frequency and Compost Effects on a Legume–Rye Cover Crop During Eight Years of Organic Vegetables
Brennan, E. B., & Smith, R. (2017) · Agronomy Journal · doi:10.2134/agronj2016.06.0354 · Cited by 9
Laminar Wall Shear Stress in Brain Arteriovenous Malformations: Systematic Review of Literature
Presti, A. L., Rogers, J. M., Stoodley, M. A., Assaad, N. N. A., Simons, M., Sen, I., & Morgan, M. K. (2019) · World Neurosurgery · doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2019.04.251 · Cited by 9
Reduced shared emotional representations toward women revealing more skin
Cogoni, C., Carnaghi, A., & Silani, G. (2020) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2020.1826409 · Cited by 10
A computational account of the mechanisms underlying face perception biases in depression.
Soto, F. A., Stewart, R. A., Hosseini, S., Hays, J. S., & Beevers, C. G. (2021) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000681 · Cited by 9
The effect of attention on body size adaptation and body dissatisfaction
House, T., Stephen, I. D., Penton‐Voak, I. S., & Brooks, K. R. (2022) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.211718 · Cited by 8
“05 [56], which could be interpreted as evidence for an effect of experiment setting.”
Background
Optimal Well-Being After Psychopathology: Prevalence and Correlates
Devendorf, A. R., Rum, R., Kashdan, T. B., & Rottenberg, J. A. (2022) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026221078872 · Cited by 10
“We calculated 95% CIs for the difference score in proportions to examine whether subsample groups exhibited reliable differences in OWB estimates (Cumming & Finch, 2005; Franklin, 2007).”
Method
Cumulative Environmental Risk in Early Life: Associations With Schizotypy in Childhood
O’Hare, K., Watkeys, O. J., Whitten, T., Dean, K., Laurens, K. R., Tzoumakis, S., Harris, F., Carr, V. J., & Green, M. J. (2022) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbac160 · Cited by 9
Insights in Hypothesis Testing and Making Decisions in Biomedical Research
Varin, S., & Panagiotakos, D. B. (2016) · The Open Cardiovascular Medicine Journal · doi:10.2174/1874192401610010196 · Cited by 9
“, odds ratios, relative risks, etc), instead of p values, as an expression of uncertainty resulting from limited sample size and also encouraging the use of Bayesian methodology [21 - 22].”
Method
Threshold Concepts for Modeling and Assessing Higher Education Students’ Understanding and Learning in Economics
Brückner, S., & Zlatkin‐Troitschanskaia, O. (2018) · Methodology of educational measurement and assessment · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-74338-7_6 · Cited by 8
Perceptual insensitivity to higher-order statistical moments of coherent random dot motion
Waskom, M., Asfour, J., & Kiani, R. (2018) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/18.6.9 · Cited by 10
Effect Size Estimation and Confidence Intervals
Fidler, F. M., & Cumming, G. (2012) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118133880.hop202005 · Cited by 9
Self-citation
Organizational-Level Training and Performance: A Meta-Analytic Investigation
Kim, J., Chang, H., & Bell, B. S. (2025) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/01492063251327588 · Cited by 14
“Additionally, following previous meta-analyses (Cumming & Finch, 2005; Howard, Gagné, & Bureau, 2017), we verified our hypotheses by checking the proportion of overlap between confidence intervals.”
Exploring Emotional Intelligence and IQ as Predictors of Success of Foster Care Alumni
Kennedy, T. D., Flach, Y., Detullio, D., Millen, D. H., Englebert, N. E., & Edmonds, W. A. (2019) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-019-01503-8 · Cited by 9
Seasonal variation and host sex affect bat–bat fly interaction networks in the Amazonian savannahs
Mejia, P., Urbieta, G. L., Xavier, B. D. S., de Castro, I. J., de Toledo, J. J., Graciolli, G., DIAS, L. A. V., & de Carvalho, W. D. (2023) · Integrative Zoology · doi:10.1111/1749-4877.12756 · Cited by 8
Age, sex, and temperature shape off-territory feeder use in black-capped chickadees
LaRocque, M., Wijmenga, J. J., & Mathot, K. J. (2024) · Behavioral Ecology · doi:10.1093/beheco/arae080 · Cited by 8
“We interpreted estimate differences in the same way as described above (Cumming and Finch 2005; Marsman and Wagenmakers 2017).”
Method
Tracking Workplace Violence over 20 Years
Magnavita, N., Meraglia, I., Viti, G., & Gasbarri, M. (2024) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph21111438 · Cited by 9
Safe Sexting, Sexual Orientation, and Gender: Risky Sexting in a Community Sample
Holmes, E. J., & Babchishin, K. M. (2024) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-024-03050-w · Cited by 9
“…sexting across groups, we found no significant differences in the strength of the relationships between impulsivity, perceptions of sexting, peer pressure, and sexual experience with high-risk sexting, across the groups (i.e., all the confidence intervals overlapped; see Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
Influential
Man, You Might Look Like a Woman — If a Child Is Next to You
Brielmann, A. A., Gaetano, J., & Stolarova, M. (2015) · Advances in Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.5709/acp-0174-y · Cited by 8
“…extremes just touch upon a meaningful difference even given a very conservative criterion (approx. p = .006), while the most common criterion for significance (p < .05) is approximated if 95% CIs for independent groups overlap by up to half of the (averaged) margin of error (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
Background
Effects of attention manipulations on motivated attention to feared and nonfeared negative distracters in spider fear
Norberg, J., & Wiens, S. (2013) · BMC Neuroscience · doi:10.1186/1471-2202-14-139 · Cited by 8
“be informative because they provide interval estimates as well as point estimates of effect sizes [63,64].”
Background
Gaining the Upper Hand: Evidence of Vertical Asymmetry in Sex-Categorisation of Human Hands
Quek, G. L., & Finkbeiner, M. S. (2014) · Advances in Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.5709/acp-0164-8 · Cited by 8
Emotion in Popular Music: A Psychological Perspective
Schubert, E. (2013) · Volume ! · doi:10.4000/volume.3626 · Cited by 9
“Since the error-lines of the two adjacent boxes overlap, we conclude that there is no statistically interesting diference between the two groups (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
Background
Die New Statistics in der Psychologie
Schäfer, T. (2018) · Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1026/0049-8637/a000184 · Cited by 8
Impressions of sexual unfaithfulness and their accuracy show a degree of universality
Sutherland, C. A. M., Martin, L., Kloth, N., Simmons, L. W., Foo, Y. Z., & Rhodes, G. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0205716 · Cited by 8
A Systematic Review of the Psychometric Properties of Binegativity scales
Morrison, M. A., Kiss, M. J., Parker, K., Hamp, T., & Morrison, T. G. (2019) · Journal of Bisexuality · doi:10.1080/15299716.2019.1576153 · Cited by 8
Child Maltreatment and Adult Sexual Assault Victimization: Genetic and Environmental Associations
Pezzoli, P., Antfolk, J., Kronlund, E., & Santtila, P. O. (2019) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2019.1634670 · Cited by 8
“No overlap, or CIs just touching, indicate significance (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
Bibliometrics-based decision tree (BBDT) for deciding whether two universities in the Leiden ranking differ substantially in their performance
Bornmann, L. (2019) · Scientometrics · doi:10.1007/s11192-019-03319-1 · Cited by 8
The Hebb repetition effect in complex span tasks: Evidence for a shared learning mechanism with simple span tasks
Araya, C., Oberauer, K., & Saito, S. (2021) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-021-01261-3 · Cited by 8
“The CIs can be interpreted in terms of classical null-hypothesis tests for pair-wise comparisons between data points: Two means differ significantly (p .05) when their CIs over- lap by less than 50% of the interval between each mean and the corresponding CI boundary (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
Background
Individual characteristics associated with perceptions of control over mortality risk and determinants of health effort
Brown, R., Sillence, E., & Pepper, G. V. (2023) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/risa.14243 · Cited by 8
“When two 95% conﬁdence intervals do not overlap (indicating a signiﬁcant difference between means), the corresponding approximate p value is 0.01, not 0.05 (Cumming, 2009; Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluential
The influence of different sensory cues as selection feedback and co-location in presence and task performance
Viciana-Abad, R., Reyes‐Lecuona, A., Rosa-Pujazón, A., & Pérez-Lorenzo, J. M. (2012) · Multimedia Tools and Applications · doi:10.1007/s11042-012-1070-8 · Cited by 8
A visual method to identify significant latitudinal changes in species' distributions
Stafford, R., Hart, A. G., & Goodenough, A. E. (2013) · Ecological Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.ecoinf.2013.03.003 · Cited by 8
Perception of Emotion and Personality through Full-Body Movement Qualities: A Sport Coach Case Study
Giraud, T., Focone, F., Demulier, V., Martin, J.-C., & Isableu, B. (2015) · On Tap · doi:10.1145/2791294 · Cited by 8
Sampling for Interdisciplinary Analysis
Abaunza, P., Murta, A. G., & Stransky, C. (2013) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-397003-9.00020-5 · Cited by 8
IS THE P-VALUE REALLY DEAD? ASSESSING INFERENCE LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE STUDENTS IN AN INTRODUCTORY STATISTICS COURSE
Lane-Getaz, S. (2017) · Statistics Education Research Journal · doi:10.52041/serj.v16i1.235 · Cited by 8
Evolutionary design of a flexible, seasonally migratory, avian phenotype: why trade gizzard mass against pectoral muscle mass?
Mathot, K. J., Kok, E. M. A., Burant, J. B., Dekinga, A., Manche, P., Saintonge, D., & Piersma, T. (2019) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2019.0518 · Cited by 8
The Consequences of Living in Childcare Deserts: Evidence from Canada
Young, M. C., Montazer, S., & Singh, D. (2020) · Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue canadienne de sociologie · doi:10.1111/cars.12316 · Cited by 8
A simple, clinically applicable motor learning protocol to increase push-off during gait: A proof-of-concept
Bertrand-Charette, M., Nielsen, J. B., & Bouyer, L. J. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0245523 · Cited by 8
“Time course analysis was performed graphically using the confidence intervals [39], as previously described in Fortin et al.”
Method
The Evolving Weather Service: Forecasters’ Perceptions of Their Relationships with Core Partners
Liu, B. F., & Seate, A. A. (2021) · Weather Climate and Society · doi:10.1175/wcas-d-20-0097.1 · Cited by 8
Epidemiologische Beiträge zur Klinischen Psychologie
Wïttchen, H., & Jacobi, F. (2011) · Springer-Lehrbuch · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-13018-2_3 · Cited by 9
FOR BLACK CAUCUS
Hagen, J. W. (2006) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.2006.00408.x · Cited by 8
Frontal asymmetry in emotion, personality and psychopathology: methodological issues in electrocortical and hemodynamic neuroimaging
Herrington, J. D., Koven, N. S., Heller, W., Miller, G. A., & Nitschke, J. B. (2009) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511642197.008 · Cited by 8
Hospital Stay as a Proxy Indicator for Severe Injury in Earthquakes: A Retrospective Analysis
Zhao, L.-P., Wärnberg, M. G., Westman, L., Rodriguez-Llanes, J. M., Wu, Q., van den Oever, B., Pan, L., Albela, M., Gao, C., Zhang, D., et al. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0061371 · Cited by 8
“We based this visual assessment on the general rule that when two 95% CIs overlap by one quarter or less of the average CI width then p 0.05, provided that both samples are larger than ten [12].”
Influential
Investigating and Communicating the Uncertainty of Effects: The Power of Graphs
Schwab, A. (2018) · Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice · doi:10.1177/1042258717753126 · Cited by 8
“Such graphs have the potential to communicate fine-grained and rich information about outcome distributions (Cumming & Finch, 2005; Gelman & Stern, 2006; Wilkinson & Task Force on Statistical Inference of the American Psychological Association, 1999).”
Background
Statistics Commentary Series
Streiner, D. L. (2017) · Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/jcp.0000000000000828 · Cited by 8
“showing us 6 attributes of the data: (1) the median, (2), the mean, (3) the lower quartile, (4) the upper quartile, (5) the inter-quartile range, and (6) the skewness.”
Background
Optimal experimental design for parameter identification and model selection
Schenkendorf, R. (2014) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) · doi:10.25673/4085 · Cited by 8
The New Statistics for Better Science: Ask How Much, How Uncertain, and What Else is KnownPreprint
Calin-Jageman, R. J., & Cumming, G. (2018) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/3mztg · Cited by 10
Self-citation
Which Trauma Treatment Suits me? Identification of Patients' Treatment Preferences for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Schwartzkopff, L., Gutermann, J., Steil, R., & Müller-Engelmann, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.694038 · Cited by 7
“For simplicity, we treated overlapping CIs as non-significant differences, which is a common procedure (Schenker and Gentleman, 2001; Cumming and Finch, 2005; Tan and Tan, 2010).”
Method
Phonotactically probable word shapes represent attractors in the cultural evolution of sound patterns
Matzinger, T., & Ritt, N. (2022) · Cognitive Linguistics · doi:10.1515/cog-2021-0087 · Cited by 8
The role of emotional competence in romantic and non-romantic relationships: A meta-analysis
Lovis-Schmidt, A., Tavener, D., Oestreich, J., & Rindermann, H. (2024) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2024.112813 · Cited by 12
Evaluating practice effects across learning trials – ceiling effects or something more?
Hammers, D. B., Bothra, S., Polsinelli, A. J., Apostolova, L. G., & Duff, K. M. (2024) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2024.2400107 · Cited by 7
“…of Trial One PE’s effect for the CN group relative to the MCI group), 95% Compatibility Intervals (CI s) were calculated for the Cohen’s d values; significance was determined by failure of one variable’s 95% CI to overlap with the mid-point of the other variable’s 95% CI (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
Onset Age and Internalizing Problems in Adolescents with Gender Dysphoria: Is There an Association?
Fahrenkrug, S., Becker-Hébly, I., Herrmann, L., Barkmann, C., Hohmann, S., & Bindt, C. (2025) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-025-03118-1 · Cited by 7
“When the 95% CIs overlapped, the results were not significantly different from each other (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
Bioequivalence of Mulberry Fruit Extract and 1-Deoxynojirimycin for Postprandial Blood Glucose Lowering: A Randomized Trial in Humans
Hoogenraad, A.-R., Geldof, M., Hiemstra, H., de Jong, A., Duchateau, G. S. M. J. E., & Mela, D. J. (2025) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.tjnut.2025.05.037 · Cited by 7
Perceived Chronic Stress Is Associated With the German Diabetes Risk Score Among Adults Without Known Diabetes in Germany
Nübel, J., Du, Y., Baumert, J. J., Hapke, U., Färber, F., Heidemann, C., & Scheidt‐Nave, C. (2023) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000001183 · Cited by 7
“Exp(β) with 95% CIs and p values from multivariable linear regression analy perceived chronic stress and selected covariables as independent variables: model 1 bivariate region, educational level, and living alone; and model 4 additionally adjusted for alcohol u Psychosomatic Medicine, V 85 • 332-340 336 Copyright © 2…”
MethodInfluential
Sex‐specific differences and long‐term trends in habitat selection of American woodcock
Slezak, C. R., Massé, R. J., & McWilliams, S. R. (2023) · Journal of Wildlife Management · doi:10.1002/jwmg.22518 · Cited by 7
Decoupling Judgment and Decision Making: A Tale of Two Tails
Oral, B., Dragicevic, P., Telea, A. C., & Dimara, E. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2023.3346640 · Cited by 7
“For guidance on reading graphs with conﬁdence intervals and relate them to p-values, see [77], [78].”
The Effect of Missing Item Data on the Relative Predictive Accuracy of Correctional Risk Assessment Tools
Perley-Robertson, B., Babchishin, K. M., & Helmus, L. M. (2024) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911231225191 · Cited by 7
“Namely, a missing data handling technique was considered meaningfully better than another if (a) it produced categorically better predictive accuracy, and (b) confidence intervals were not overlapping ( p \ .01; Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
A Comparison of Five Algorithmic Methods and Machine Learning Pattern Recognition for Artifact Detection in Electronic Records of Five Different Vital Signs: A Retrospective Analysis
Maleczek, M., Laxar, D., Kapral, L., Kuhrn, M., Abulesz, Y.-T., Dibiasi, C., & Kimberger, O. (2024) · Anesthesiology · doi:10.1097/aln.0000000000004971 · Cited by 7
“28 Observations were viewed as indepen-dent—no within-person clustering of performance was conducted.”
Perceived Duration Increases with Contrast, but Only a Little
Benton, C. P., & Redfern, A. S. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01950 · Cited by 7
“For statistical inference, we rely partly on plotted data along with its associated conﬁdence intervals (Loftus, 1993; Cumming and Finch, 2005).”
Method
An Evaluation of Manual and Semi-Automatic Laughter Annotation
Ludusan, B., & Wagner, P. (2020) · Interspeech (USB) · doi:10.21437/interspeech.2020-2521 · Cited by 7
“According to [23], only an overlap smaller than .”
Background
Degradation mechanisms and partial shading of glass-backsheet and double-glass photovoltaic modules in three climate zones determined by remote monitoring of time-series current–voltage and power datastreams
Liu, J., Wang, M., Curran, A. J., Schnabel, E., Köhl, M., Braid, J. L., & French, R. H. (2021) · Solar Energy · doi:10.1016/j.solener.2021.06.022 · Cited by 7
Depth-dependent indicators of algal turf herbivory throughout the Main Hawaiian Islands
Foo, S. A., & Asner, G. P. (2021) · Coral Reefs · doi:10.1007/s00338-021-02162-2 · Cited by 7
“Non-overlapping 95% CIs was an indication that means were significantly different between depths (Smith 1997; Cumming and Finch 2005).”
Background
Label-free and highly sensitive nanoplasmonic biosensor-based autophagy flux sensing for clinical application
Choi, Y. J., Lee, J. U., & Sim, S. J. (2021) · Sensors and Actuators B Chemical · doi:10.1016/j.snb.2021.130880 · Cited by 7
Insights from real-time comprehension of Spanish verbal tense in children with developmental language disorder: An eye-tracking study
Christou, S., Andreu, L., Coloma, C. J., Guerra, E., Araya, C., Rodríguez‐Ferreiro, J., & Sanz‐Torrent, M. (2022) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716422000042 · Cited by 8
“Confidence intervals are a reliable source for estimating effects size in the original measure (Cumming, 2013, 2014; Cumming & Finch, 2005; Fidler & Cumming, 2013), which can be visually inferred by observing the differences between the upper and the lower boundary between two means.”
Background
Longitudinal analysis of women and men’s motivational beliefs in a two-semester introductory physics course sequence for students on the bioscience track
Cwik, S., & Singh, C. (2022) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.18.020111 · Cited by 9
Empirical Reporting Practices in Community College Journal of Research and Practice and Journal of Developmental Education From 2002 to 2011: A Systematic Review
Skidmore, S. T., Zientek, L. R., Combs, J. P., Fuller, M. B., Hirai, M., Price, D. P., & Moore, G. W. (2014) · Community College Journal of Research and Practice · doi:10.1080/10668926.2013.843478 · Cited by 7
Differences in Self-Reported Trauma Symptomatology Between Individuals With and Without Disability
Strauser, D. R., Lustig, D. C., & Uruk, A. C. (2007) · Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin · doi:10.1177/00343552070500040301 · Cited by 7
Failure of facial configural cues to alter metric stereoscopic depth
Gillam, B., Anderson, B. L., & Rizwi, F. (2009) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/9.1.3 · Cited by 7
Facilitating the restoration of aquatic plant communities in a Ramsar wetland
Jellinek, S., Te, T., Gehrig, S., Stewart, H., & Nicol, J. (2016) · Restoration Ecology · doi:10.1111/rec.12355 · Cited by 7
“…that independent variables would display “some evidence” of a difference if the proportion of CI overlap was no more than half the average length of the two overlapping arms (p 0.05), and the two overlapping arms did not differ in length by more than a factor of two (Cumming & Finch 2005).”
BackgroundInfluential
Comparing vector-based and Bayesian memory models using large-scale datasets: User-generated hashtag and tag prediction on Twitter and Stack Overflow.
Stanley, C. T., & Byrne, M. D. (2016) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/met0000098 · Cited by 7
“In similar spirit to Masson and Loftus (2003), Tryon (2001), and Cumming and Finch (2005), confidence intervals were used throughout for statistical inference instead of explicit p values.”
Method
Analysis with confidence: distinguishing pre-Bondaian and Bondaian silicified mudstone artefact assemblages from the Cumberland Plain of Western Sydney, New South Wales
White, B. (2017) · Australian Archaeology · doi:10.1080/03122417.2017.1417003 · Cited by 7
“Confidence intervals are often calculated at the 90% level or higher (e.g. Fletcher and Lock 2005:74–75) but at the 95% level, confidence intervals can overlap and assemblages may still be statistically different at the 0.05 probability level (Cumming and Finch 2005:176; Field 2013:71).”
BackgroundInfluential
Gibt es einen wissenschaftlichen Konsens zur Wirtschaftlichkeit nachhaltiger Immobilien?
Fuerst, F., & Dalton, B. (2019) · Zeitschrift für Immobilienökonomie · doi:10.1365/s41056-019-00041-0 · Cited by 7
Einflussfaktoren auf das Stigmabewusstsein Arbeitsloser
Lang, S., & Groß, C. (2019) · Zeitschrift für Soziologie · doi:10.1515/zfsoz-2019-0018 · Cited by 9
Construct validity of global life-satisfaction judgments: A look into the black box of self–informant agreement
Payne, J. W., & Schimmack, U. (2020) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2020.104041 · Cited by 7
Identifying the Effects of COVID-19 on Psychological Well-Being Through Unsupervised Clustering for Mixed Data
Lingelbach, K., Gado, S., Janssen, D., Piechnik, D., Eichler, M., Knopf, D., Hentschel, L., Schuler, M. K., Sernatinger, D., & Peißner, M. (2021) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-2377-6_81 · Cited by 7
The Importance of Knowledge Cumulation and the Search for Hidden Agendas: A Reply to Kocsis, Middledorp, and Karpin (2008)
Snook, B., Eastwood, J., Gendreau, P., & Bennell, C. (2010) · Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice · doi:10.1080/15228930903550541 · Cited by 7
“It is not good enough to simply say that a finding is statistically significant, because p values give little information about the utility of results or the potential of a finding being replicated (Cumming & Finch, 2005; Gendreau & Smith, 2007).”
Background
COMPARING DENSITY ANALYSES AND CARNIVORE ECOLOGY IN MADAGASCAR’S SOUTHEASTERN RAINFOREST
Gerber, B. D. (2010) · VTechWorks (Virginia Tech) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.1.3071.7603 · Cited by 7
Significance Test, Confidence Interval, Both or Neither?
Knapp, T. R. (2017) · Clinical Nursing Research · doi:10.1177/1054773817708652 · Cited by 7
“Not so, say Cumming (2007), Cumming and Finch (2005), Moye (2006), and others.”
Background
Epidemiologische Beiträge zur Klinischen Psychologie
Beesdo-Baum, K., Höfler, M., Jacobi, F., & Wittchen, H.-U. (2020) · Klinische Psychologie & Psychotherapie · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-61814-1_3 · Cited by 6
Do Unified Protocol modules exert general or unique effects on anxiety, depression, and transdiagnostic targets?
Southward, M. W., Lane, S. P., Shroyer, S. E., & Sauer-Zavala, S. (2023) · Journal of Mood & Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.xjmad.2023.100022 · Cited by 6
“Finally, although we explored within-module comparisons using confidence intervals of effect sizes, these estimates may be overly conservative or limited in their inter-pretability [61] so we encourage future researchers to adapt more directly comparable measures in future work.”
Approachability and Credibility of Virtual Character Faces: The Role of the Horizontal Viewing Angle
So, C., & Jung, K. (2023) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/00187208231153492 · Cited by 7
“Thus, the reader can identify signi ﬁ cant differences by eyesight when standard errors of two means are not overlapping (Cumming & Finch, 2005).”
Background
Review of methods for assessing the measured heat transfer coefficient (HTC)
Ritoša, K., Collett, M., Juricic, S., Henshaw, G., Li, M., Roels, S., & Fitton, R. (2025) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2025.114082 · Cited by 6

Authors: Cumming, G., & Finch, S.
Affiliations: La Trobe University (AU)
ORCID: Cumming, Geoff
Finch, Sue
Venue: American Psychologist
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2005
Volume: 60
Issue: 2
Pages: 170-180
ISSN: 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
1935-990X
DOI: 10.1037/0003-066x.60.2.170
OpenAlex: W2005534705
Cited by: 1,449
References: 59
Citations by year: 2026: 62 · 2025: 66 · 2024: 74 · 2023: 92 · 2022: 102 · 2021: 110 · 2020: 92 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 80 · 2017: 82 · 2016: 76 · 2015: 89 · 2014: 63 · 2013: 59 · 2012: 48
FWCI: 39.36
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistics Education and Methodologies
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
Keywords: confidence intervals, error bars, statistical significance testing, interval estimation, scholarly communication
MeSH terms: Humans, Confidence Intervals

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Inference by Eye: Confidence Intervals and How to Read Pictures of Data.

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks