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Changes in executive control across the life span: Examination of task-switching performance.
Abstract
A study was conducted to examine changes in executive control processes over the life span. More specifically, changes in processes responsible for preparation and interference control that underlie the ability to flexibly alternate between two different tasks were examined. Individuals (N = 152) ranging in age from 7 to 82 years participated in the study. A U-shaped function was obtained for switch costs (i.e., the time required to switch between tasks compared with a repeated-task baseline), with larger costs found for young children and older adults. Switch costs were reduced with practice, particularly for children. All age groups benefited from increased preparation time, with larger benefits observed for children and older adults. Adults benefited to a greater extent than children when the interval between the response to one task and the cue indicating which task to perform next was lengthened, which suggested faster decay of interference from the old task set for adults than for children. A series of hierarchical analyses indicated that the age-related variance in task-switching performance is independent, at least in part, from the age-related variance in other cognitive processes such as perceptual speed and working memory. The results are discussed in terms of the development and decline of executive control processes across the life span.
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“The heteromodal nature of cognitive brain development is evident from studies of neurocognitive performance (6, 7), functional imaging (functional MRI or positronemission tomography) (8–10), and electroencephalogram coherence studies (1, 2, 10).”
From Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood (2004) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“For example, research on cognitive flexibility has used a variety of task switching paradigms and generally found decreases in switch costs (i.e., the extent to which participants slow down on, or in the context of, switch trials) across childhood and adolescence, and subsequent increases in older adults (Cepeda, Kramer, & Gonzalez de Sather, 2001; Crone, Bunge, Van der Molen, & Ridderinkhof, 2006”
From NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (CB): Validation of Executive Function Measures in Adults (2014) · cites this paper as Cepeda, Kramer, & Gonzalez de Sather, 2001
In the citing paper
“In a cross-sectional study of participants ages 7 to 82 years, for example, Cepeda et al. (2001) found that switch costs (above and beyond perceptual speed, working memory, and non-switch reaction time) decreased from childhood into young adulthood and then stayed fairly constant until approximately 60 years of age, after which they increased.”
From NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (CB): Validation of Executive Function Measures in Adults (2014) · cites this paper as Cepeda et al. (2001)
In the citing paper
“Cognitive flexibility follows a protracted, inverted U-shaped developmental trajectory from early childhood through adolescence and adulthood, peaking between the second and third decades of life, and declining in late life19.”
From Cognitive and behavioural flexibility: Neural mechanisms and clinical considerations (2021) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“While previous studies have shown that task maintenance and selection as well as cognitive flexibility improved after task-switching training in children and adolescents between the ages of 7 and 20 years (e.g., Cepeda et al., 2001; Kray et al., 2008, 2013; Karbach and Kray, 2009; Zinke et al., 2012), there is also evidence for transfer of task-switching training to new untrained tasks.”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Cepeda et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Evidence supporting the compensation account comes from numerous studies focusing on EF training, revealing that training-related benefits were larger in children and older adults than in younger adults”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Cepeda et al., 2001
In the citing paper
“Cognitive flexibility emerges in early life, showing sharp increases between 7–9 years of age, then follows a protracted development throughout young adulthood, becoming largely mature by age 20 (40,41). However, this skill continues to improve throughout adolescence and adulthood, peaking between 21–30 years of age before declining in later life (40,42,43).”
From Brain Mechanisms Supporting Flexible Cognition and Behavior in Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder (2021) · cites this paper as [43]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Cepeda, N. J., Kramer, A. F., & Gonzalez de Sather, J. C. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- ORCID
- Kramer, Arthur F.
- Venue
- Developmental Psychology
- Published
- 2001
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 715-730
- ISSN
- 0012-1649 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-0599
- OpenAlex
- W1978319605
- Cited by
- 657
- References
- 75
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 43 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 33 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 26 · 2012: 42
- FWCI
- 3.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Developmental Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R01 AG 14966, R01AG014966)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- executive function, task switching, switch costs, interference control, age differences, cognitive aging, cognitive development, practice effects, perceptual speed, working memory
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Child, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Task Performance and Analysis
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