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Cited by 657Neural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesCognitive Abilities and TestingCognitive Functions and Memory

Changes in executive control across the life span: Examination of task-switching performance.

Cepeda, Nicholas J., Kramer, Arthur F., Gonzalez de Sather, Jessica C. M.·2001·Developmental Psychology
DOI 10.1037/0012-1649.37.5.715
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Abstract

A study was conducted to examine changes in executive control processes over the life span. More specifically, changes in processes responsible for preparation and interference control that underlie the ability to flexibly alternate between two different tasks were examined. Individuals (N = 152) ranging in age from 7 to 82 years participated in the study. A U-shaped function was obtained for switch costs (i.e., the time required to switch between tasks compared with a repeated-task baseline), with larger costs found for young children and older adults. Switch costs were reduced with practice, particularly for children. All age groups benefited from increased preparation time, with larger benefits observed for children and older adults. Adults benefited to a greater extent than children when the interval between the response to one task and the cue indicating which task to perform next was lengthened, which suggested faster decay of interference from the old task set for adults than for children. A series of hierarchical analyses indicated that the age-related variance in task-switching performance is independent, at least in part, from the age-related variance in other cognitive processes such as perceptual speed and working memory. The results are discussed in terms of the development and decline of executive control processes across the life span.

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Crossref · 10.1037/0012-1649.37.5.715

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78 of 78 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

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  • Cognitive brain development is heteromodal.

    “The heteromodal nature of cognitive brain development is evident from studies of neurocognitive performance (6, 7), functional imaging (functional MRI or positronemission tomography) (8–10), and electroencephalogram coherence studies (1, 2, 10).”

    From Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood (2004) · cites this paper as [6]

  • Research on cognitive flexibility has generally found decreases in switch costs across childhood and adolescence and subsequent increases in older adults.

    “For example, research on cognitive flexibility has used a variety of task switching paradigms and generally found decreases in switch costs (i.e., the extent to which participants slow down on, or in the context of, switch trials) across childhood and adolescence, and subsequent increases in older adults (Cepeda, Kramer, & Gonzalez de Sather, 2001; Crone, Bunge, Van der Molen, & Ridderinkhof, 2006”

    From NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (CB): Validation of Executive Function Measures in Adults (2014) · cites this paper as Cepeda, Kramer, & Gonzalez de Sather, 2001

  • In a cross-sectional study of participants ages 7 to 82 years, switch costs decreased from childhood into young adulthood, stayed fairly constant until approximately 60 years of age, and then increased.

    “In a cross-sectional study of participants ages 7 to 82 years, for example, Cepeda et al. (2001) found that switch costs (above and beyond perceptual speed, working memory, and non-switch reaction time) decreased from childhood into young adulthood and then stayed fairly constant until approximately 60 years of age, after which they increased.”

    From NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (CB): Validation of Executive Function Measures in Adults (2014) · cites this paper as Cepeda et al. (2001)

  • Cognitive flexibility develops over a long inverted U-shaped course, peaks in the second or third decade, and declines in later life.

    “Cognitive flexibility follows a protracted, inverted U-shaped developmental trajectory from early childhood through adolescence and adulthood, peaking between the second and third decades of life, and declining in late life19.”

    From Cognitive and behavioural flexibility: Neural mechanisms and clinical considerations (2021) · cites this paper as [19]

  • Task maintenance and selection as well as cognitive flexibility improved after task-switching training in children and adolescents between the ages of 7 and 20 years.

    “While previous studies have shown that task maintenance and selection as well as cognitive flexibility improved after task-switching training in children and adolescents between the ages of 7 and 20 years (e.g., Cepeda et al., 2001; Kray et al., 2008, 2013; Karbach and Kray, 2009; Zinke et al., 2012), there is also evidence for transfer of task-switching training to new untrained tasks.”

    From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Cepeda et al., 2001

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Authors
Cepeda, N. J., Kramer, A. F., & Gonzalez de Sather, J. C. M.
Affiliations
University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
ORCID
Kramer, Arthur F.
Venue
Developmental Psychology
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
2001
Volume
37
Issue
5
Pages
715-730
ISSN
  • 0012-1649 (ISSN-L)
  • 1939-0599
DOI
10.1037/0012-1649.37.5.715
OpenAlex
W1978319605
Cited by
657
References
78
Citations by year
2026: 16 · 2025: 43 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 33 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 26 · 2012: 42
FWCI
3.15
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • Developmental Psychology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
National Institute on Aging (R01 AG 14966, R01AG014966)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Keywords
executive function, task switching, switch costs, interference control, age differences, cognitive aging, cognitive development, practice effects, perceptual speed, working memory
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Child, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Task Performance and Analysis

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