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Selective attention and emotional vulnerability: Assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attentional bias.
Abstract
Although it is well-established that vulnerability to negative emotion is associated with attentional bias toward aversive information, the causal basis of this association remains undetermined. Two studies addressed this issue by experimentally inducing differential attentional responses to emotional stimuli using a modified dot probe task, and then examining the impact of such attentional manipulation on subsequent emotional vulnerability. The results supported the hypothesis that the induction of attentional bias should serve to modify emotional vulnerability, as revealed by participants' emotional reactions to a final standardized stress task. These findings provide a sound empirical basis for the previously speculative proposal that attentional bias can causally mediate emotional vulnerability, and they suggest the possibility that cognitive-experimental procedures designed to modify selective information processing may have potential therapeutic value.
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“An initial study found that subliminal ABM training did not induce attentional changes to threatening stimuli (MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, 2002).”
From Advancing the treatment of anxiety disorders in transition‐age youth: a review of the therapeutic effects of unconscious exposure. (2025) · cites this paper as MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, 2002
In the citing paper
“Also, training attentional bias towards negative stimuli increases self-reported distress to a laboratory stressor (MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, 2002)”
From Attentional bias and emotional reactivity as predictors and moderators of behavioral treatment for social phobia (2013) · cites this paper as MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, 2002
In the citing paper
“Selective biases in attention can be modified by a simple computerized technique; the Attention Bias Modification task (ABM), pioneered by Colin MacLeod et al. [19]”
In the citing paper
“These simple, computer-based training tasks have been found to alter processing biases (eg, in attention) in both non-clinical (Browning et al, 2010b; MacLeod et al, 2002) and clinical groups (Amir et al, 2009)”
From Using an Experimental Medicine Model to Explore Combination Effects of Pharmacological and Cognitive Interventions for Depression and Anxiety (2011) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al, 2002
In the citing paper
“In line with previous work, both citalopram (Harmer et al, 2004; Murphy et al, 2009) and positive cognitive bias training (Browning et al, 2010b; MacLeod et al, 2002) on their own produced relatively positive changes in emotional bias, consistent with the idea that this may be a common process in treatments of emotional disorders (Harmer, 2008).”
From Using an Experimental Medicine Model to Explore Combination Effects of Pharmacological and Cognitive Interventions for Depression and Anxiety (2011) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al, 2002
In the citing paper
“After promising preclinical studies (MacLeod et al., 2002), first successful clinical applications have been reported in targeted prevention (See et al., 2009) and in clinically anxious patient groups (Amir et al., 2009;Schmidt et al., 2009), and targeted prevention (See et al., 2009) with maintenance of clinical improvement reported four months after the training (Schmidt et al., 2009).”
From Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation (2011) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al., 2002
In the citing paper
“inducing a negative attentional bias in healthy participants increases anxiety (4)”
From Lateral prefrontal cortex mediates the cognitive modification of attentional bias (2010) · cites this paper as [4]
In the citing paper
“Thus, not only is exposure ineffective for those who are negatively biased, training attention toward threat in non-avoidant populations has also been found to increase rather than decrease anxiety in both adults and children [41,43,44].”
From Can mindfulness be too much of a good thing? The value of a middle way (2019) · cites this paper as [43]
In the citing paper
“One such potential intervention is attention bias modification (ABM), a computer-delivered treatment for anxiety that emerged from research in experimental psychopathology (MacLeod & Mathews, 2012;MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, 2002).”
From Anxiety and attention to threat: cognitive mechanisms and treatment with attention bias modification (2016) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al., 2002
In the citing paper
“These differing views point to a potential limitation of ABM-threat-avoidance training which focuses on modifying an automatic bias in initial orienting to threat (MacLeod et al., 2002), rather than other attention mechanisms such as top-down attention control which may support emotion regulation and resilience to anxiety (e.g., Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997).”
From Anxiety and attention to threat: cognitive mechanisms and treatment with attention bias modification (2016) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al., 2002
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“More specifically, in emotional disorders it is assumed that there is a reciprocal relationship between emotional distress (e.g., fear) and a failure to inhibit the allocation of attentional resources toward threatening information (MacLeod et al., 2002; Mathews & MacLeod, 1994).”
BackgroundMethodThe influence of cognitive biases on psychophysiological vulnerability to stress
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Basanovic, J. (2024) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-024-02403-6 · Cited by 7
“The most common of these tasks is the “attentional-probe” or “dot-probe” paradigm (MacLeod et al., 1986, 2002).”
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“Sustained threat perception and attentional bias have been suggested to result in further anxiety (218), serving as a salient example of allostatic load and offering a positive feedforward mechanism for both anxiety onset and maintenance.”
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“…a heightened attentional bias to threat (MacLeod et al., 1986; MacLeod and Mathews, 1988, Mogg et al., 1995; Fox, 2002, Mogg and Bradley, 2002), which has been hypothesized to play a causal role in the development and maintenance of anxiety (MacLeod et al., 2002; Mathews and MacLeod, 2002).”
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“After brief exposure to the pair of words, participants have to respond to the target that systematically appears in the location of the positive stimulus, training participants to ignore the threatening words and direct their attention to positive cues [30].”
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“Adapted from MacLeod et al. (2002) , participants were exposed to a standardised stressor that would have a negative effect on emotional experience.”
MethodSelf-citationEyes on the body: Assessing attentional bias toward body-related stimuli in Anorexia Nervosa
Meregalli, V., Giovannini, S., Trevisan, A., Romanelli, M., Uğur, S., Tenconi, E., Meneguzzo, P., Cardi, V., & Collantoni, E. (2025) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2025.01.043 · Cited by 6
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“Supporting such associations, experimentally induced biases in non-anxious participants were found to resemble those observed in anxious populations and to increase the vulnerability to anxious mood (Mathews and Mackintosh 2000; Mathews and MacLeod 2002).”
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“CBM training generally consists of adapted cognitive bias assessment tasks, such as the visual probe task (VPT; MacLeod et al., 2002) or approach-avoidance task (AAT; Boffo et al., 2018), where a stimulus–response contingency is added to train participants to learn a new, more beneficial response…”
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“In particular, the attention bias to negative stimuli in general is assumed to be associated with stress sensitivity (Fox et al. 2011; MacLeod et al. 2002).”
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“As a consequence, interventions focusing on treating maladap - tive attentional biases, such as Attentional Bias Modifica - tion (ABM) training (MacLeod et al., 2002 ), might not be beneficial for every individual.”
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“attention from threatening stimuli, which reduced symptoms (50, 51).”
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“Given that involuntary attention to threatening stimuli increases anxiety (MacLeod et al., 2002), SA individuals can be trained to develop a positive interpretation bias, which would help to reduce anxiety.”
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“…training individuals to adopt the feature search mode should protect against this increase in anxiety, which parallels the prediction and findings observed when individuals are trained to avoid negative stimuli in standard probe detection tasks (Grafton et al., 2014;MacLeod et al., 2002).”
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“Collectively, these programs are termed Cognitive Bias Modification (CBM) training [12-15].”
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“…Hakamata et al., 2010; Klumpp & Amir, 2010; Lang, Blackwell, Harmer, Davison, & Holmes, 2012; Li, Tan, Qian, & Liu, 2008; MacLeod, Clarke, & Mathews, 2002, MacLeod & Clarke, 2013; MacLeod et al., 2002; MacLeod & Mathews, 2012; Mathews & MacLeod, 2002; Schmidt et al., 2009; Waters et al., 2013).”
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“What is cognitive bias modification? MacLeod and colleagues introduced the most widely used approach worldwide to modify attentional bias.(25) The procedure exposes participants to pairs of words or images on a computer screen for 500 ms, with each pair including one emotionally negative and one neutral item.”
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“One of key factors in the origin and the maintenance of BD are the biases when attending emotional information (MacLeod et al., 2002).”
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“Although still preliminary, results are promising that these techniques may effectively shift processing biases in healthy (see MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, 2002; Mathews & MacLeod, 2005) and anxious populations (e.g., Amir, Weber, Beard, Bomyea, & Taylor, 2008; Teachman & Addison, 2008).”
ResultContextual modulation of medial prefrontal cortex to neutral faces in anxious adolescents
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“These cognitive biases are thought to fuel the distress and avoidance behavior that characterize anxiety disorders, and they are viewed as potential explanatory mechanisms for understanding their etiology [10,11].”
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“The current findings are important because they shed new light on the mixed results that have been reported in the field of Attention Bias Modification (i.e., ABM; MacLeod et al., 2002; Hertel and Mathews, 2011; Beard et al., 2012).”
Ruíz, E. J. C., Mancilla, J. M., de León, M. D. C. E. P., & Téllez, M. G. Y. (2010) · Revista Mexicana de Análisis de la Conducta · doi:10.5514/rmac.v35.i2.16109 · Cited by 4
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“The location of the target (either mostly contiguous with the meaningful word or mostly contiguous with the benign words) can be used to train participants to attend or not attend to the relevant words [14].”
BackgroundMethodMohiyeddini, C. (2017) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.04.002 · Cited by 4
Attentional bias training in reducing symptoms of anxiety
Kłosowska, J., Blaut, A., & Paulewicz, B. (2015) · Psychiatria Polska · doi:10.12740/pp/27628 · Cited by 5
Hilland, E., Landrø, N. I., Harmer, C. J., Browning, M. D., Maglanoc, L. A., & Jonassen, R. (2018) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/322842 · Cited by 6
Kruijt, A., & Carlbring, P. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/scqf3 · Cited by 7
Bruce, L. C., & Heimberg, R. G. (2013) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118528563.wbcbt38 · Cited by 6
Eysenck, M. W. (2007) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012373947-6.00084-2 · Cited by 4
Amir, N., Taboas, W., & Montero, M. (2019) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2019.103446 · Cited by 4
Amano, Y., Koizumi, K., Takizawa, H., Tasaka, S., & Hamaguchi, T. (2025) · Neuropsychopharmacology Reports · doi:10.1002/npr2.70002 · Cited by 3
“The dot-probe task is a frequently used intervention method [22].”
Maddern, X. J., Walker, L. C., Campbell, E. J., Arunogiri, S., Haber, P., Morley, K. C., Manning, V., Millan, E. Z., McNally, G. P., Lubman, D. I., et al. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104899 · Cited by 4
Media multitasking, negative mood, and avoidance coping
Shin, M., Downes, C., Hopwood, J., Byers, M., & Kemps, E. (2024) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2024.2353276 · Cited by 5
“Participants were presented with a pair of words (taken from MacLeod et al. 2002), one negative and the other neutral, with one word displayed above the other (see Figure 1).”
Theta Rhythm‐Based Attention Switch Training Effectively Modified Negative Attentional Bias
Guo, L., Cai, X., & Wang, Y. (2024) · CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics · doi:10.1111/cns.70157 · Cited by 3
Attentional bias related issues and applications in sport context
Chuang, L.-Y., Huang, C., Lung, I.-F., & Hung, T. (2013) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2013.792590 · Cited by 3
“Y C huang et al. 表2 注意力偏誤訓練之實證研究 作者 介入對象 訓練方式 結果 MacLeod et al. (2002) ▸ 中程度特質焦慮 者64人 ，分中性 刺激偏誤訓練組 和威脅刺激偏誤 訓練組。 ▸ 單階段訓練 ，分12個 區段 ，全部共576試 作。 ▸ 訓練之後 ，威脅刺激訓練 組對於威脅字詞有較快的 反應時間 ，而中性訓練組 對於中性字有較快的反應 時間。雖然訓練前後其情 緒並沒有顯著之改變 ，但 是在執行隨後的壓力作業 時 ，威脅刺激訓練組出現 較高的負面情緒。 ▸ 注意力偏誤可透過因果關 係調整情緒脆弱因子 (vulnerability)。 Eldar…”
No Evidence of Attentional Bias In Statistics Anxiety
Chew, P. K. H., Swinbourne, A. L., & Dillon, D. (2014) · The European Journal of Social & Behavioural Sciences · doi:10.15405/ejsbs.131 · Cited by 3
“Threatening words not found in the frequency dictionary (e.g., Selection & Peer-review under responsibility of the Editors Factorial) were paired and matched for letter length with neutral words (e.g., Decanting) adapted from MacLeod et al. (2002).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGasperini, C., & Rousseau, A. (2014) · Journal de Thérapie Comportementale et Cognitive · doi:10.1016/j.jtcc.2014.06.001 · Cited by 3
Sagliano, L., Nappo, R., Mario Liotti, A., Fiorenza, M., Gargiulo, C., Trojano, L., & Conson, M. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18179104 · Cited by 3
“Studies on attentional bias modification training (ABMT [50]) in clinical populations employed a dot-probe paradigm [51] to train individuals to divert their attention away from threat.”
Background(2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108623018 · Cited by 3
Processus automatiques et activités physiques bénéfiques pour la santé
Cheval, B., Sarrazin, P. G., & Radel, R. (2016) · L’Année psychologique · doi:10.3917/anpsy.162.0295 · Cited by 12
Online Attentional Bias Modification Training for Adolescents With Internet Gaming Disorder
Nasiry, S., & Noori, M. (2022) · Practice in Clinical Psychology · doi:10.32598/jpcp.10.2.739.3 · Cited by 3
Effects of Training Body-Related Interpretations on Panic-Related Cognitions and Symptoms
Würtz, F., Steinman, S. A., Blackwell, S. E., Wilhelm, F. H., Reinecke, A., Adolph, D., Margraf, J., & Woud, M. L. (2023) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-023-10358-9 · Cited by 6
Pilloni, G., Cho, H., Tian, T. E., Beringer, J., Bikson, M., & Charvet, L. E. (2023) · Neuromodulation Technology at the Neural Interface · doi:10.1016/j.neurom.2023.07.006 · Cited by 3
Vrijsen, J. N., Windbergs, H., Becker, E. S., Scherbaum, N., Müller, B. W., & Tendolkar, I. (2023) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-023-10452-y · Cited by 3
“CBM techniques have been developed on the scien-tifically-substantiated theoretical premises that negative cognitive biases are mechanisms contributing to emotional disorders, including depression (LeMoult & Gotlib, 2019; MacLeod et al., 2002).”
Metadata
- Authors
- MacLeod, C., Rutherford, E., Campbell, L., Ebsworthy, G., & Holker, L.
- Affiliations
- The University of Western Australia (AU)
- ORCID
- MacLeod, Colin
- Venue
- Journal of Abnormal Psychology
- Published
- 2002-02
- Volume
- 111
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 107-123
- ISSN
- 0021-843X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1846
- OpenAlex
- W2122758649
- Cited by
- 1,334
- References
- 48
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 80 · 2020: 54 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 80 · 2015: 96 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 96 · 2012: 83
- FWCI
- 32.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Abnormal Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- attentional bias, emotional vulnerability, selective attention, negative emotions, dot-probe task, stress reactivity, causal mediation analysis, cognitive bias modification
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Psychology, Adolescent, Adult, Affect, Attention, Female, Humans, Male
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